Tarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Comparison of Cognitive Inhibition in Monolingual and Bilingual StudentsComparison of Cognitive Inhibition in Monolingual and Bilingual Students1236808FAFaezehAdibniaPh.D. Candidate in Psychology, Department of Psychology, Isfahan University, Isfahan, IranSoghraAkbari ChermahiniAssistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Arak University, Arak, IranJournal ArticleIn cognitive linguistics, language is considered part of human cognitive abilities, and any linguistic analysis is accompanied by an analysis of human cognitive abilities. One of the human cognitive abilities is cognitive inhibition. The aim of this study was to compare cognitive inhibition in bilingual students and monolingual students. The research question is whether there is a significant difference between cognitive inhibition in bilingual and monolingual students?
The present study is a descriptive causal-comparative study. In this study, cognitive inhibition (performance in numerical stroop test) was compared between two groups of bilingual and monolingual students. The statistical population of the present study included all secondary school students in Qazvin. The sample group consisted of 90 students (45 Persian monolingual students and 45 Turkish-Persian and Kurdish-Persian bilingual students) who were selected by purposive sampling method. A demographic questionnaire and numerical stroop test were used to collect information. A demographic questionnaire and numerical stroop test were used to collect information. Due to the lack of complete cooperation of some sample people in answering the numerical strop test, the number of sample people was reduced to 39 monolingual students and 43 bilingual students.
Despite the attention of many researchers to cognitive inhibition, understanding and access to the true concept of cognitive inhibition is complex. Two strategies have been used to study cognitive processes: self-report techniques (interview and questionnaire) and the use of empirical-cognitive models. Interviews and questionnaires assess only aspects of cognition that can be verbalized, and such data can only provide relative support for cognitive models of disorders.
The existence of such problems in interviews and questionnaires has increased the use of empirical concepts and patterns. The Stroop test is one of the most effective tools that studies cognitive inhibition and selective attention in a practical way and its results are extracted directly from the individual's performance. The test was named after John Ridley Stroop (1935), who invented the color version of the test. Since then, various forms of this test such as directional stroop, odor and taste stroop, numerical stroop, shape strokes & etc have been made and used. In the present study, to measure cognitive inhibition used the numerical stroop .The Persian version of this test was made by the researcher (the first author of the present study). The reliability of the test was 86% using the retest method on 100 subjects.
The numerical stroop test consists of 96 numeric pairs, of which 48 pairs are used for physical comparison and 48 pairs are used for numerical comparison. In the 48 pairs on which the physical comparison is performed, 16 pairs of inconsistent numbers, 16 pairs of consonants and 16 pairs of numbers are neutral, and in the 48 pairs on which the numerical comparison is performed, the same order of properties is established. The subject's task is to select the number that is larger in terms of physical size in the physical comparison section and the number that is larger in terms of numerical value in the numerical comparison section.
The output of the numerical stroop test includes pairs of numbers to be compared, reaction time, subject selection, correct or incorrect answer, and type of comparison (physical comparison and numerical comparison). In order to determine the Stroop effect, the interference score is calculated by calculating the difference between the reaction time to the consonant and inconsistent numbers. Using this test, the effect of numerical stroop and the effect of physical stroop can be calculated. The larger stroop effect indicates greater interference and a lower level of cognitive inhibition.
Multivariate analysis of variance was used to measure the difference between the effect of numerical and physical stroop in bilingual and monolingual students. The results showed that there was a significant difference between bilingual and monolingual students in the numerical stroop effect and the physical stroop effect. There is a significant difference in cognitive inhibition performance between the two groups and according to the mean, monolingual students have poorer performance in cognitive inhibition.
This result is in line with the findings of Bialystok and et al. (2005), Carlson and Meltzoff (2008), Bialystok and Viswanthan (2009), Prior and Macwhinney (2020), Cushen and Wiley (2011), Poulin-Dubois et al. (2011) and Blumenfeld and Marian (2011) are consistent. In these studies, it has been concluded that the performance of bilinguals in cognitive activities such as cognitive control, flexibility and cognitive inhibition is better than monolinguals.
Cognitive inhibition involves the ability to switch between sets of responses. Bilingual students have a stronger central performer. Because more linguistic information in bilinguals is constantly challenged and acted upon, they perform better in suppressing interference with a stimulus that competes with the initial response, and are better at controlling disturbances from different tasks.
It can be said that bilinguals use more effective cognitive strategies in dealing with problems because they speak a variety of languages. The interaction of languages can be considered as a factor that confronts the bilingual person with situations that he learns to use more appropriate cognitive strategies, and these strategies improve their cognitive performance. Also, the ability of symbolic substitution in different forms causes the superiority of bilinguals in cognitive function and this effect is due to the interaction and interrelationship of two languages. Thus, because in bilinguals both languages are mutually active and have common representational regions in the brain, bilinguals have a greater ability to inhibit and selectively pay attention to cognitive processes.In cognitive linguistics, language is considered part of human cognitive abilities, and any linguistic analysis is accompanied by an analysis of human cognitive abilities. One of the human cognitive abilities is cognitive inhibition. The aim of this study was to compare cognitive inhibition in bilingual students and monolingual students. The research question is whether there is a significant difference between cognitive inhibition in bilingual and monolingual students?
The present study is a descriptive causal-comparative study. In this study, cognitive inhibition (performance in numerical stroop test) was compared between two groups of bilingual and monolingual students. The statistical population of the present study included all secondary school students in Qazvin. The sample group consisted of 90 students (45 Persian monolingual students and 45 Turkish-Persian and Kurdish-Persian bilingual students) who were selected by purposive sampling method. A demographic questionnaire and numerical stroop test were used to collect information. A demographic questionnaire and numerical stroop test were used to collect information. Due to the lack of complete cooperation of some sample people in answering the numerical strop test, the number of sample people was reduced to 39 monolingual students and 43 bilingual students.
Despite the attention of many researchers to cognitive inhibition, understanding and access to the true concept of cognitive inhibition is complex. Two strategies have been used to study cognitive processes: self-report techniques (interview and questionnaire) and the use of empirical-cognitive models. Interviews and questionnaires assess only aspects of cognition that can be verbalized, and such data can only provide relative support for cognitive models of disorders.
The existence of such problems in interviews and questionnaires has increased the use of empirical concepts and patterns. The Stroop test is one of the most effective tools that studies cognitive inhibition and selective attention in a practical way and its results are extracted directly from the individual's performance. The test was named after John Ridley Stroop (1935), who invented the color version of the test. Since then, various forms of this test such as directional stroop, odor and taste stroop, numerical stroop, shape strokes & etc have been made and used. In the present study, to measure cognitive inhibition used the numerical stroop .The Persian version of this test was made by the researcher (the first author of the present study). The reliability of the test was 86% using the retest method on 100 subjects.
The numerical stroop test consists of 96 numeric pairs, of which 48 pairs are used for physical comparison and 48 pairs are used for numerical comparison. In the 48 pairs on which the physical comparison is performed, 16 pairs of inconsistent numbers, 16 pairs of consonants and 16 pairs of numbers are neutral, and in the 48 pairs on which the numerical comparison is performed, the same order of properties is established. The subject's task is to select the number that is larger in terms of physical size in the physical comparison section and the number that is larger in terms of numerical value in the numerical comparison section.
The output of the numerical stroop test includes pairs of numbers to be compared, reaction time, subject selection, correct or incorrect answer, and type of comparison (physical comparison and numerical comparison). In order to determine the Stroop effect, the interference score is calculated by calculating the difference between the reaction time to the consonant and inconsistent numbers. Using this test, the effect of numerical stroop and the effect of physical stroop can be calculated. The larger stroop effect indicates greater interference and a lower level of cognitive inhibition.
Multivariate analysis of variance was used to measure the difference between the effect of numerical and physical stroop in bilingual and monolingual students. The results showed that there was a significant difference between bilingual and monolingual students in the numerical stroop effect and the physical stroop effect. There is a significant difference in cognitive inhibition performance between the two groups and according to the mean, monolingual students have poorer performance in cognitive inhibition.
This result is in line with the findings of Bialystok and et al. (2005), Carlson and Meltzoff (2008), Bialystok and Viswanthan (2009), Prior and Macwhinney (2020), Cushen and Wiley (2011), Poulin-Dubois et al. (2011) and Blumenfeld and Marian (2011) are consistent. In these studies, it has been concluded that the performance of bilinguals in cognitive activities such as cognitive control, flexibility and cognitive inhibition is better than monolinguals.
Cognitive inhibition involves the ability to switch between sets of responses. Bilingual students have a stronger central performer. Because more linguistic information in bilinguals is constantly challenged and acted upon, they perform better in suppressing interference with a stimulus that competes with the initial response, and are better at controlling disturbances from different tasks.
It can be said that bilinguals use more effective cognitive strategies in dealing with problems because they speak a variety of languages. The interaction of languages can be considered as a factor that confronts the bilingual person with situations that he learns to use more appropriate cognitive strategies, and these strategies improve their cognitive performance. Also, the ability of symbolic substitution in different forms causes the superiority of bilinguals in cognitive function and this effect is due to the interaction and interrelationship of two languages. Thus, because in bilinguals both languages are mutually active and have common representational regions in the brain, bilinguals have a greater ability to inhibit and selectively pay attention to cognitive processes.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6808_6194a1ee187acd6606989f03769e8f7f.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Study of Language and Style in Sam Shepardâs Fool for LoveThe Study of Language and Style in Sam Shepardâs Fool for Love25486809FAAliAghaeiM.A Student, Department of English, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, IranMahmoodrezaGhorban SabbaghAssistant Professor, Department of English, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.Journal ArticleThis article aims to investigate the language of ‘May’ and has presented a stylistic study of Shepard’s Fool for Love (1983). To do the study, the writers of this article have benefited from ‘Level of the Word’, ‘Level of the Phrase/Sentence’ and ‘Level of Discourse’ presented by Sara mills. Using Mills’ ideas, the problem suggested in this article is to show whether ‘May’ is a powerful character or not. The purpose of this article is to compare and contrast the character of ‘May’ with the male characters of the play, and answer the following: Is she always obeying male characters of the play? And according to critics, has Shepard presented a weak female character in the play? The findings of the study show that ‘May’ has a submissive character and cannot affect others around her. She is also weaker than the male characters of the play.
Methodology
Mills (1995) identifies three levels of analysis, the first of which is analysis at the level of the word (p. 62); at this level she identifies various methods that sexism is found in language, and they are as follows:
Linguistic Determinism
Generic Pronouns
Generic Nouns
Women as the Marked Form
(pp. 62-70)
Mills (1995) then goes on to discuss “Sexism and Meaning”, raising questions about the way in which meanings may be sex-specific; she discusses some problematic areas, namely:
Naming and Androcentrism
The Semantic Derogation of Women
Endearments and Diminutives
Female Experience: Euphemism and Taboo
Lexical Gaps: Male Point of View
Dictionaries and Gatekeepers
(pp. 77-94)
The second level of analysis which Mills (1995) proposes is analysis at the level of the phrase/sentence; she expands by suggesting areas that require particular attention in an analysis, said areas being:
Ready-made Phrases
Presupposition and Inference
Metaphor
Jokes and Humour
Transitivity Choices
(pp. 98-110)
Regarding transitivity, Mills (1995) states that it has to do with the “representation of who acts (who is an agent) and who is acted upon (who is affected by the actions of others)”; she goes on to explain that there are three types of choices: “material, mental and relational” (p. 110). Mills (1995) elaborates further:
In this system, processes can be categorized into those elements which are actions which can be observed in the real world and which have consequences (material), for example, ‘She swam across the river’; those which take place largely in the mind (mental), for example, ‘She thought about the situation’; and those which simply relate two elements together (relational), for example, ‘It is rather cold’. Within material action processes, there are two further choices, between ‘material action intention’ and ‘material action supervention’: with material action intention, there is a clear will to do something, for example, ‘I broke the window, in order to get into the house’; but with supervention, there is an attempt to capture for analysis those verbal processes where things are not done intentionally, for example, ‘I broke my favourite glasses’. (pp. 110-111)
As has become clear, transitivity allows for investigation into whether a character is active or passive, and also whether a character manages to have an effect on her surroundings and other characters.
The final level of analysis Mills (1995) observes is the level of discourse; she indicates a few areas for analysis at this level which consist of:
Characters/Roles
Fragmentation
Focalization
Schemata
(pp. 123-148).
Conclusion
From the very beginning of the play, Eddie is shown as the active character while May remains the passive one. Also, inferences were made that May cannot provide for herself, coupled with the fact that May is the goal of Eddie’s material-action-intention act, shows that May is the powerless passive goal whereas Eddie is the powerful active agent. Even when May makes Eddie the goal of her act, Eddie is simultaneously doing the same, and the difference is that May is physically subordinated as well. In excerpt 2, Eddie’s belief that May needs someone to check up on her, suggests that May cannot take care of herself, and as such she is viewed as powerless and inferior. The aforementioned presupposition is indicative of an anti-feminist viewpoint in the play. Eddie proceeds by using a material-action-intention act whereas May uses an internal mental process, and said processes point to Eddie being powerful and active while May is powerless and passive.
Excerpt 3 begins with Eddie using a “ready-made phrase” to indicate that because May has aged, she should not be dating, and this is a negative view designed to damage May’s perception of herself to make her believe she is not attractive. Eddie goes on to threaten May with material-action-intention acts, which show May’s subordination and powerlessness. Therefore, the exchanges between Eddie and May are dominated by the former, and this suggests the subordination of femininity. In the fourth excerpt, May uses a relational process which suggests that she is a passive character; the fact that said relational process is used to hide her date from Eddie, further supports her passivity and powerlessness. May’s identity is also brought into question because she does not influence Eddie, and simply reacts to his words and action not being able to instigate anythingThis article aims to investigate the language of ‘May’ and has presented a stylistic study of Shepard’s Fool for Love (1983). To do the study, the writers of this article have benefited from ‘Level of the Word’, ‘Level of the Phrase/Sentence’ and ‘Level of Discourse’ presented by Sara mills. Using Mills’ ideas, the problem suggested in this article is to show whether ‘May’ is a powerful character or not. The purpose of this article is to compare and contrast the character of ‘May’ with the male characters of the play, and answer the following: Is she always obeying male characters of the play? And according to critics, has Shepard presented a weak female character in the play? The findings of the study show that ‘May’ has a submissive character and cannot affect others around her. She is also weaker than the male characters of the play.
Methodology
Mills (1995) identifies three levels of analysis, the first of which is analysis at the level of the word (p. 62); at this level she identifies various methods that sexism is found in language, and they are as follows:
Linguistic Determinism
Generic Pronouns
Generic Nouns
Women as the Marked Form
(pp. 62-70)
Mills (1995) then goes on to discuss “Sexism and Meaning”, raising questions about the way in which meanings may be sex-specific; she discusses some problematic areas, namely:
Naming and Androcentrism
The Semantic Derogation of Women
Endearments and Diminutives
Female Experience: Euphemism and Taboo
Lexical Gaps: Male Point of View
Dictionaries and Gatekeepers
(pp. 77-94)
The second level of analysis which Mills (1995) proposes is analysis at the level of the phrase/sentence; she expands by suggesting areas that require particular attention in an analysis, said areas being:
Ready-made Phrases
Presupposition and Inference
Metaphor
Jokes and Humour
Transitivity Choices
(pp. 98-110)
Regarding transitivity, Mills (1995) states that it has to do with the “representation of who acts (who is an agent) and who is acted upon (who is affected by the actions of others)”; she goes on to explain that there are three types of choices: “material, mental and relational” (p. 110). Mills (1995) elaborates further:
In this system, processes can be categorized into those elements which are actions which can be observed in the real world and which have consequences (material), for example, ‘She swam across the river’; those which take place largely in the mind (mental), for example, ‘She thought about the situation’; and those which simply relate two elements together (relational), for example, ‘It is rather cold’. Within material action processes, there are two further choices, between ‘material action intention’ and ‘material action supervention’: with material action intention, there is a clear will to do something, for example, ‘I broke the window, in order to get into the house’; but with supervention, there is an attempt to capture for analysis those verbal processes where things are not done intentionally, for example, ‘I broke my favourite glasses’. (pp. 110-111)
As has become clear, transitivity allows for investigation into whether a character is active or passive, and also whether a character manages to have an effect on her surroundings and other characters.
The final level of analysis Mills (1995) observes is the level of discourse; she indicates a few areas for analysis at this level which consist of:
Characters/Roles
Fragmentation
Focalization
Schemata
(pp. 123-148).
Conclusion
From the very beginning of the play, Eddie is shown as the active character while May remains the passive one. Also, inferences were made that May cannot provide for herself, coupled with the fact that May is the goal of Eddie’s material-action-intention act, shows that May is the powerless passive goal whereas Eddie is the powerful active agent. Even when May makes Eddie the goal of her act, Eddie is simultaneously doing the same, and the difference is that May is physically subordinated as well. In excerpt 2, Eddie’s belief that May needs someone to check up on her, suggests that May cannot take care of herself, and as such she is viewed as powerless and inferior. The aforementioned presupposition is indicative of an anti-feminist viewpoint in the play. Eddie proceeds by using a material-action-intention act whereas May uses an internal mental process, and said processes point to Eddie being powerful and active while May is powerless and passive.
Excerpt 3 begins with Eddie using a “ready-made phrase” to indicate that because May has aged, she should not be dating, and this is a negative view designed to damage May’s perception of herself to make her believe she is not attractive. Eddie goes on to threaten May with material-action-intention acts, which show May’s subordination and powerlessness. Therefore, the exchanges between Eddie and May are dominated by the former, and this suggests the subordination of femininity. In the fourth excerpt, May uses a relational process which suggests that she is a passive character; the fact that said relational process is used to hide her date from Eddie, further supports her passivity and powerlessness. May’s identity is also brought into question because she does not influence Eddie, and simply reacts to his words and action not being able to instigate anythinghttps://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6809_5c3a3b139a11689e0bc55abd95e20e39.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Stylistics of "Physical Metamorphosis" in Child Stories, based on The Tensive Regime of DiscourseStylistics of "Physical Metamorphosis" in Child Stories, based on The Tensive Regime of Discourse49746810FAAmir HosseinZanjanbarComputational linguistics- Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies- Tehran University- Tehran-IranAliAbbasiFrench and Latin Language and Literature. Faculty:Letters and Human Sciences. Shahid Beheshti University. Tehran. Iran.Journal ArticleIntroduction: "Physical Metamorphosis" is the change in the identity of the acting element or the actress of the story, from a physical representation to another physical expression. In the present study, the word "physical" in addition to the metamorphosis of the body, as a body, also refers to the metamorphosis of the body as an object. "Physical Metamorphosis" either as a knot method, is the creator of a tensive space, or like a resolver method, derived from a tensive space. To examine the aforementioned method, however the choice of the "tensive regime of discourse, is a proportional choice.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to classify the stories in the range of children that have been developed around the "Physical Metamorphosis".
Questions: In this regard, the present study seeks to answer three questions: 1. how the style of the elements involved in metamorphosis take the advantage of tensive regime of discourse to produce meaning in the child story? 2. What is the relationship between the level of consciousness of its transformation element and the amount of its transformation process?
3. Based on the model proposed by Zilberberg, how is it possible to define and illustrate these styles?
Methodology: The two-component stylistics of this study uses two coordinates systems perpendicular to each other: one in terms of time-metamorphosis, which shows the qualitative changes of metamorphic action, in a quantitative period of time, and the other in terms of time-consciousness, which represents the qualitative changes in the consciousness of the actor submissive subject towards his metamorphosis. In this study, "metamorphosis", as well as "the subject's mental awareness of its own metamorphosis", are both considered a qualitative component, alongside linguistic content, and "time" as a quantitative and extrinsic component. The present study uses a descriptive analysis approach.
Conclusions: 1) Zilberberg believes in five styles or modes of presence: style of modality, style of efficiency, style of existence, inclusive and exclusive style. According to the present study, this stylistics can be divided into two groups. The first group includes style of modality, style of efficiency, and style of existence. These three styles are relative to each other being in complementary distribution; that is, although all three are stressful, and have relatively similar functions; but none of both items come together. The second group includes, inclusive and exclusive style. Both components are in complementary distribution relative to each other; but none of the three styles of the first group, with any of the two styles of the second group, are in complementary distribution; For example, the stress space can be both style of modality (from the first group) and inclusive style (from the second group).
2) The first group, which includes three styles of modality, efficiency and existence, divides both the metamorphic process and the pattern of awareness of the metamorphic element towards its own metamorphosis. Based on these two components, we can identify the cognitive style pattern of physical metamorphosis in children's stories based on two components: The first is metamorphosis at the biological level, and the other is metamorphosis at the phenomenological level.
3) Children's stories, which are based on bodily metamorphosis, follow six two-component models: I) The efficiency, with the phenomenon of modality, II)The double efficiency, III)The double modality, IV)The modality with the phenomenon of efficiency, V)The existence, VI) Without the phenomenon.
This study, for the first time, generalizes Zilberberg's one-component stylistic model to two-component stylistic paradigm. In two-component stylistics, the first component represents the objective process of the biological changes of the transformed personality, and the second component represents the phenomenological changes that occur in mind of the transformed personality. That is, the coordinate system based on "time-metamorphosis" corresponds to the first component, and shows how the objective the process of metamorphosis is. The coordinate system based on "time-awareness" corresponds to the second component, and shows how the personality is aware and mentally informed of its metamorphosis. In this article, the representation of stress axes (extent and intensity axes) are completely consistent with mathematical paradigms.
Significance of the study: Regarding the frequency of the application of the "Physical Metamorphosis" in children story, and the lack of theoretical research on this field, the necessity of conducting a research in this field sounds beneficial.Introduction: "Physical Metamorphosis" is the change in the identity of the acting element or the actress of the story, from a physical representation to another physical expression. In the present study, the word "physical" in addition to the metamorphosis of the body, as a body, also refers to the metamorphosis of the body as an object. "Physical Metamorphosis" either as a knot method, is the creator of a tensive space, or like a resolver method, derived from a tensive space. To examine the aforementioned method, however the choice of the "tensive regime of discourse, is a proportional choice.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to classify the stories in the range of children that have been developed around the "Physical Metamorphosis".
Questions: In this regard, the present study seeks to answer three questions: 1. how the style of the elements involved in metamorphosis take the advantage of tensive regime of discourse to produce meaning in the child story? 2. What is the relationship between the level of consciousness of its transformation element and the amount of its transformation process?
3. Based on the model proposed by Zilberberg, how is it possible to define and illustrate these styles?
Methodology: The two-component stylistics of this study uses two coordinates systems perpendicular to each other: one in terms of time-metamorphosis, which shows the qualitative changes of metamorphic action, in a quantitative period of time, and the other in terms of time-consciousness, which represents the qualitative changes in the consciousness of the actor submissive subject towards his metamorphosis. In this study, "metamorphosis", as well as "the subject's mental awareness of its own metamorphosis", are both considered a qualitative component, alongside linguistic content, and "time" as a quantitative and extrinsic component. The present study uses a descriptive analysis approach.
Conclusions: 1) Zilberberg believes in five styles or modes of presence: style of modality, style of efficiency, style of existence, inclusive and exclusive style. According to the present study, this stylistics can be divided into two groups. The first group includes style of modality, style of efficiency, and style of existence. These three styles are relative to each other being in complementary distribution; that is, although all three are stressful, and have relatively similar functions; but none of both items come together. The second group includes, inclusive and exclusive style. Both components are in complementary distribution relative to each other; but none of the three styles of the first group, with any of the two styles of the second group, are in complementary distribution; For example, the stress space can be both style of modality (from the first group) and inclusive style (from the second group).
2) The first group, which includes three styles of modality, efficiency and existence, divides both the metamorphic process and the pattern of awareness of the metamorphic element towards its own metamorphosis. Based on these two components, we can identify the cognitive style pattern of physical metamorphosis in children's stories based on two components: The first is metamorphosis at the biological level, and the other is metamorphosis at the phenomenological level.
3) Children's stories, which are based on bodily metamorphosis, follow six two-component models: I) The efficiency, with the phenomenon of modality, II)The double efficiency, III)The double modality, IV)The modality with the phenomenon of efficiency, V)The existence, VI) Without the phenomenon.
This study, for the first time, generalizes Zilberberg's one-component stylistic model to two-component stylistic paradigm. In two-component stylistics, the first component represents the objective process of the biological changes of the transformed personality, and the second component represents the phenomenological changes that occur in mind of the transformed personality. That is, the coordinate system based on "time-metamorphosis" corresponds to the first component, and shows how the objective the process of metamorphosis is. The coordinate system based on "time-awareness" corresponds to the second component, and shows how the personality is aware and mentally informed of its metamorphosis. In this article, the representation of stress axes (extent and intensity axes) are completely consistent with mathematical paradigms.
Significance of the study: Regarding the frequency of the application of the "Physical Metamorphosis" in children story, and the lack of theoretical research on this field, the necessity of conducting a research in this field sounds beneficial.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6810_4f1927fff6e092185d6a6f4c8466e421.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922An Investigation of Persian Binomials based on Constraints ModelAn Investigation of Persian Binomials based on Constraints Model751046811FAAliArabanidanaPhD Candidate in General Linguistics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, IranAdelRafieeAssistant Professor, Department of General Linguistics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.0000-0002-8798-4043Journal ArticleIntroduction: In every language, there are some constructions where two constituents are put together to form a lexical item. These constructions are called binomials. In this term, “ nomi” ( which means “name”) can refer to names, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and conjunctions. These constructions can be just the repetition of the same word, like “davan davan”, or can be reduplication, like “ketab metab” which has a phonological motivation. They can be onomatopoeia, like “tick-tack” or can be of a kind where there is a just a semantic motivation, like “jang and solh”. But terminologically, binomials refer to the sequence of two words pertaining to the same form-class, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link. One point in binomials relates to the order of constituents and which factors or constraints determine their order. In this regard, there is a model called Constraints’ Model (2014). The model has some constraints which determines the order of constituents in binomials.
Purpose: The paper aims to investigate Persian binomials based on Constraints’ Model.
Study questions: In this regard, the study questions are:
1-To how extent the order of constituents in Persian binomials can be determined based on semantic-pragmatic constraints, non-metrical-phonological constraints, metrical-phonological constraints, and frequency and alphabetic order constraints which are mentioned in Constraints’ Model?
2- To how extent Constraints’ Model can be a criterion to determine the order of constituents in Persian binomials?
3-For those Persian binomials whose orders can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model, what constraints can be defined?
Methodology: The research is done using Constraints’ Model. The data were extracted from twenty Persian novel, the newspapers “Hamshahri” and “Iran” in a one year period, Persian dictionary and web. From the corpus, 1957 binomials were extracted, many of which were ignored because they were in the groups “repetition” and “reduplication”. Finally there were 593 reversible and irreversible binomials. To do the research, all these 593 binomials were divided into two groups “reversible” and “irreversible”. To determine the (ir) -reversibility of Persian binomials, Persian Language Data Base (Bijankhan Corpus) was used, so following Mollin’s method (2013), the binomials appearing just in one order were considered irreversible and the ones appearing in both orders were considered reversible. For reversible binomials, it was attempted to find their preferred order. To find the preferred order of reversible binomials, the researcher referred to the frequency in Persian Language Data Base and web and the frequency number of both order were found. If the frequency occurrence of one order was significantly higher than the other order, that order was considered as the preferred order, but if the frequency occurrence of two different orders in one binomial wasn’t different significantly, that binomial was removed from research, because there wasn’t any preferred order which can be determined by Constraints’ Model. Then the irreversible binomials and reversible binomials with a preferred order were analyzed using Constraints’ Model.
Analysis: Analysis of research data, considering the occurrence order of binomials in Persian Language Data Base (Bijankhan Corpus) and web showed that among 593 binomials, 534 ones were irreversible and 59 ones were reversible. The 534 irreversible binomials were analyzed using Constraints’ Model.
Conclusion: Data analysis showed that among 534 irreversible binomials, Constraints’ Model can determine the order of 520 binomials (97/3), but in research corpus, there were 11 binomials (2/7) whose order can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model. The analysis results for reversible binomials showed that among 45 reversible binomials (with a preferred order), Constraints’ Model can determine the order of 44 binomials (97/7), but there were one reversible binomial (2/3) which couldn’t be explained Constraints’ Model.
To answer the first question of the research, we can say that Constraints’ Model has determined the order of 97/4 of binomials (both irreversible binomials and reversible binomials with a preferred order) in Persian. So it is concluded that Constraints’ Model is suitable to determine the order of constituents in Persian binomials.
But for those Persian binomials whose order can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model, some constraints were proposed which are: dominance principle, initial sonority of second syllable principle, unstressed vowel length principle, analogy principle, importance principle, coda’s initial sonority principle,Introduction: In every language, there are some constructions where two constituents are put together to form a lexical item. These constructions are called binomials. In this term, “ nomi” ( which means “name”) can refer to names, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and conjunctions. These constructions can be just the repetition of the same word, like “davan davan”, or can be reduplication, like “ketab metab” which has a phonological motivation. They can be onomatopoeia, like “tick-tack” or can be of a kind where there is a just a semantic motivation, like “jang and solh”. But terminologically, binomials refer to the sequence of two words pertaining to the same form-class, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link. One point in binomials relates to the order of constituents and which factors or constraints determine their order. In this regard, there is a model called Constraints’ Model (2014). The model has some constraints which determines the order of constituents in binomials.
Purpose: The paper aims to investigate Persian binomials based on Constraints’ Model.
Study questions: In this regard, the study questions are:
1-To how extent the order of constituents in Persian binomials can be determined based on semantic-pragmatic constraints, non-metrical-phonological constraints, metrical-phonological constraints, and frequency and alphabetic order constraints which are mentioned in Constraints’ Model?
2- To how extent Constraints’ Model can be a criterion to determine the order of constituents in Persian binomials?
3-For those Persian binomials whose orders can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model, what constraints can be defined?
Methodology: The research is done using Constraints’ Model. The data were extracted from twenty Persian novel, the newspapers “Hamshahri” and “Iran” in a one year period, Persian dictionary and web. From the corpus, 1957 binomials were extracted, many of which were ignored because they were in the groups “repetition” and “reduplication”. Finally there were 593 reversible and irreversible binomials. To do the research, all these 593 binomials were divided into two groups “reversible” and “irreversible”. To determine the (ir) -reversibility of Persian binomials, Persian Language Data Base (Bijankhan Corpus) was used, so following Mollin’s method (2013), the binomials appearing just in one order were considered irreversible and the ones appearing in both orders were considered reversible. For reversible binomials, it was attempted to find their preferred order. To find the preferred order of reversible binomials, the researcher referred to the frequency in Persian Language Data Base and web and the frequency number of both order were found. If the frequency occurrence of one order was significantly higher than the other order, that order was considered as the preferred order, but if the frequency occurrence of two different orders in one binomial wasn’t different significantly, that binomial was removed from research, because there wasn’t any preferred order which can be determined by Constraints’ Model. Then the irreversible binomials and reversible binomials with a preferred order were analyzed using Constraints’ Model.
Analysis: Analysis of research data, considering the occurrence order of binomials in Persian Language Data Base (Bijankhan Corpus) and web showed that among 593 binomials, 534 ones were irreversible and 59 ones were reversible. The 534 irreversible binomials were analyzed using Constraints’ Model.
Conclusion: Data analysis showed that among 534 irreversible binomials, Constraints’ Model can determine the order of 520 binomials (97/3), but in research corpus, there were 11 binomials (2/7) whose order can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model. The analysis results for reversible binomials showed that among 45 reversible binomials (with a preferred order), Constraints’ Model can determine the order of 44 binomials (97/7), but there were one reversible binomial (2/3) which couldn’t be explained Constraints’ Model.
To answer the first question of the research, we can say that Constraints’ Model has determined the order of 97/4 of binomials (both irreversible binomials and reversible binomials with a preferred order) in Persian. So it is concluded that Constraints’ Model is suitable to determine the order of constituents in Persian binomials.
But for those Persian binomials whose order can’t be determined using Constraints’ Model, some constraints were proposed which are: dominance principle, initial sonority of second syllable principle, unstressed vowel length principle, analogy principle, importance principle, coda’s initial sonority principle,https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6811_2adcfc3929e7c03fac3100d3ad51da26.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Detecting Emotion as a Construct Irrelevant Factor in Reading Section of TOEFLDetecting Emotion as a Construct Irrelevant Factor in Reading Section of TOEFL1051286812FAYaserKheyrkhahniaPh.D. Candidate of English teaching, Department of English, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, IranBehzadGhonsoolyDepartment of English, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran/ Professor of Applied Linguistics, Department of English, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran0000-0001-7642-1053JavadSalehi FadardiDepartment of English, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran / Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, IranJournal ArticleUnderstanding the impact of various factors on language testing is important. Therefore, it is necessary to understand how they affect test scores in order to design and standardize language tests (Bachman, 1990). Based on the same logic and considering the need of fair reviewing for any tests claimed by ETS (2010), it is essential to identify, reduce and eliminate factors unrelated to the structure that hinder the optimal performance of test takers (Messick, 1989).
According to Vinson (2014), words themselves are a powerful tool for expressing emotions. Does a factor such as vocabularies in a text stimulate emotional reactions? When we read a text, we use our knowledge to understand its vocabularies, but in addition, by reading the vocabularies, emotion may be stimulated, which are deliberately not examined during the test. This research is intended to investigate if the vocabularies of TOEFL passages are likely to stimulate emotion as the construct-irrelevant factor which could affect the accuracy and legitimacy of the TOEFL test. Also, our hypothesis is that the amount of emotion evoked in the words of TOEFL texts is different from each other, and other factors intervene in this category.
By using the initial pilot sampling and with the help of PASS Software to determine the size of the final sample, 393 people were randomly selected by Random Number Generator Software. In addition, according to the method of detecting emotions by forming an emotional dictionry proposed by Turney (2002), the present study labled parts of speech of each word and then the words were grouped together as meaningful expressions into a five-page list of phrases like a dictionary. Through this method, the present study could determine the intensity and valenance of the selected particpants’ emotions in relation to the phrases selected from TOEFL iBT reading passages. Also, it was significant to measure if emotional intelligence could be influential on the evoked emotions of the words and phrases; thus, Emotional Intelligence Questionare of Schutte (1998) was selected. The research procedure was that the selected participants read three TOEFL passages without answering their reading questions; instead, they did Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire and self-reported their emotions through the five-page list of words and phrases.
The results of this study confirmed the validity of the research hypotheses, in the sense that not only the words and phrases of the three TOEFL passages in this research caused emotions but also the three passages were different in terms of emotion, and it can be argued that this can be a construct-irrelevant factor when reading and comprehending TOEFL passages.
The results of this study can increase the awareness of TOEFL test designers. In other words, TOEFL test designers must consider the effect of emotional elements in language assessment because these elements may disrupt the mental order of test takers and can affect their performances. This study casts doubt on the validity and reliability of the TOEFL as a standard test. ETS (2010) is interested in a fair review of tests to identify and reduce factors unrelated to the structure so it is useful considering the emotional interactions in the process of assessing the validity and reliability of any tests.Understanding the impact of various factors on language testing is important. Therefore, it is necessary to understand how they affect test scores in order to design and standardize language tests (Bachman, 1990). Based on the same logic and considering the need of fair reviewing for any tests claimed by ETS (2010), it is essential to identify, reduce and eliminate factors unrelated to the structure that hinder the optimal performance of test takers (Messick, 1989).
According to Vinson (2014), words themselves are a powerful tool for expressing emotions. Does a factor such as vocabularies in a text stimulate emotional reactions? When we read a text, we use our knowledge to understand its vocabularies, but in addition, by reading the vocabularies, emotion may be stimulated, which are deliberately not examined during the test. This research is intended to investigate if the vocabularies of TOEFL passages are likely to stimulate emotion as the construct-irrelevant factor which could affect the accuracy and legitimacy of the TOEFL test. Also, our hypothesis is that the amount of emotion evoked in the words of TOEFL texts is different from each other, and other factors intervene in this category.
By using the initial pilot sampling and with the help of PASS Software to determine the size of the final sample, 393 people were randomly selected by Random Number Generator Software. In addition, according to the method of detecting emotions by forming an emotional dictionry proposed by Turney (2002), the present study labled parts of speech of each word and then the words were grouped together as meaningful expressions into a five-page list of phrases like a dictionary. Through this method, the present study could determine the intensity and valenance of the selected particpants’ emotions in relation to the phrases selected from TOEFL iBT reading passages. Also, it was significant to measure if emotional intelligence could be influential on the evoked emotions of the words and phrases; thus, Emotional Intelligence Questionare of Schutte (1998) was selected. The research procedure was that the selected participants read three TOEFL passages without answering their reading questions; instead, they did Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire and self-reported their emotions through the five-page list of words and phrases.
The results of this study confirmed the validity of the research hypotheses, in the sense that not only the words and phrases of the three TOEFL passages in this research caused emotions but also the three passages were different in terms of emotion, and it can be argued that this can be a construct-irrelevant factor when reading and comprehending TOEFL passages.
The results of this study can increase the awareness of TOEFL test designers. In other words, TOEFL test designers must consider the effect of emotional elements in language assessment because these elements may disrupt the mental order of test takers and can affect their performances. This study casts doubt on the validity and reliability of the TOEFL as a standard test. ETS (2010) is interested in a fair review of tests to identify and reduce factors unrelated to the structure so it is useful considering the emotional interactions in the process of assessing the validity and reliability of any tests.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6812_92b70a527191ca64ca2df1cc32142646.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922A Critical Systemic Functional Analysis of the Communication Difficulties with Information Packing in Criminal Procedure Code of IranA Critical Systemic Functional Analysis of the Communication Difficulties with Information Packing in Criminal Procedure Code of Iran1291526813FAMohammadHatefiAssistant Professor at Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Tehran, Iran.Journal ArticleDifficulties of the legal language is something that everyone has heard something about that and may have ideas about the problem. It is being said that the way to solve the problem with the legal language is that we try to write the articles of the codes in an easy language and method and to use editing instruments. From a linguistic point of view it is not just the matter of easy writing but it is a problem which needs some basic theoretical hypothesis to show us a scientific method to deal with the problem. In this study, subject matter analysis is done through the functional approach as proposed and outlined in Halliday’s approach. The author believes that it is not enough to consider the linguistic character of the articles of the legal codes or the texts of law, but we needs to consider instead the communicative aspects and the way the legislator convey the massage.
This paper aims to study how the Criminal Procedure Code of Iran to convey meaning and to communicate and transfer message to the audience based on Halliday’s functionalism regarding communicative and functional roles of language. Based on that approach, the Code is expected to communicate with the audience and convey meaning and message through a variety of linguistic functions. Each article in the code contains a variety of actions and topics which the legislator tries to convey to the audience using linguistic and metalinguistic factors. In this paper an attempt is made to represent the three experimental, interpersonal and textual metafunctions in the articles of the Code.
Legal mechanisms, expressed through language propositions, are subordinate to the contextual and structural requirements of language for meaning. Functional theory defines three metafunctions as contextual and structural requirements for expressing any linguistic contents. To consider the empirical-logical, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions is necessary to analyze the difficulties of the legal language in general and the language of the law in special. The key question is: what is this difficulty? The functional hypothesis is that this difficulty lies in the way information is presented by the text and in the way the text to communicate. By focusing on Articles 1 to 7 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 2013, The present paper showed that in these articles, passive structure of the verb, substitution of the subject with the abstract expressions and conversion of concrete verbs to ideational create a huge amount of interpretation imposed on the reader. It has implicated the role of judicial authorities in the exercise of power in the form of constructive and empirical and material constituent elements in cases where they must be held accountable. This form of information gives a dominant position to the judicial authorities against the accused in contrast with the protection of civil rights enshrined in Article 7.
Findings confirmed the desirable performance of the functional theory in the field of the articles of the Code. Halliday’s Functionalism shows that the main problem in respect with the articles of the Criminal Procedure Code is not just restricted to the linguistic features but the main problem arises from the communicative strategies which the legislator uses to convey meaning to the audience. In this way the interpretive implications have the most parasitic role which do not let the audience easily communicate and direct with the message being conveyed. The results of this study showed that a proper packaging of Information, regarding the functional aspects, is a useful way to achieve the goals of an easy writing movements too. Proper packaging of information, will help us resolve the difficulties in both sides of writing and communicating.Difficulties of the legal language is something that everyone has heard something about that and may have ideas about the problem. It is being said that the way to solve the problem with the legal language is that we try to write the articles of the codes in an easy language and method and to use editing instruments. From a linguistic point of view it is not just the matter of easy writing but it is a problem which needs some basic theoretical hypothesis to show us a scientific method to deal with the problem. In this study, subject matter analysis is done through the functional approach as proposed and outlined in Halliday’s approach. The author believes that it is not enough to consider the linguistic character of the articles of the legal codes or the texts of law, but we needs to consider instead the communicative aspects and the way the legislator convey the massage.
This paper aims to study how the Criminal Procedure Code of Iran to convey meaning and to communicate and transfer message to the audience based on Halliday’s functionalism regarding communicative and functional roles of language. Based on that approach, the Code is expected to communicate with the audience and convey meaning and message through a variety of linguistic functions. Each article in the code contains a variety of actions and topics which the legislator tries to convey to the audience using linguistic and metalinguistic factors. In this paper an attempt is made to represent the three experimental, interpersonal and textual metafunctions in the articles of the Code.
Legal mechanisms, expressed through language propositions, are subordinate to the contextual and structural requirements of language for meaning. Functional theory defines three metafunctions as contextual and structural requirements for expressing any linguistic contents. To consider the empirical-logical, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions is necessary to analyze the difficulties of the legal language in general and the language of the law in special. The key question is: what is this difficulty? The functional hypothesis is that this difficulty lies in the way information is presented by the text and in the way the text to communicate. By focusing on Articles 1 to 7 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 2013, The present paper showed that in these articles, passive structure of the verb, substitution of the subject with the abstract expressions and conversion of concrete verbs to ideational create a huge amount of interpretation imposed on the reader. It has implicated the role of judicial authorities in the exercise of power in the form of constructive and empirical and material constituent elements in cases where they must be held accountable. This form of information gives a dominant position to the judicial authorities against the accused in contrast with the protection of civil rights enshrined in Article 7.
Findings confirmed the desirable performance of the functional theory in the field of the articles of the Code. Halliday’s Functionalism shows that the main problem in respect with the articles of the Criminal Procedure Code is not just restricted to the linguistic features but the main problem arises from the communicative strategies which the legislator uses to convey meaning to the audience. In this way the interpretive implications have the most parasitic role which do not let the audience easily communicate and direct with the message being conveyed. The results of this study showed that a proper packaging of Information, regarding the functional aspects, is a useful way to achieve the goals of an easy writing movements too. Proper packaging of information, will help us resolve the difficulties in both sides of writing and communicating.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6813_83a100ec3c2c30751156cea2d60aacbe.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Participles of the Russian Language in the Mirror of the Persian LanguageThe Participles of the Russian Language in the Mirror of the Persian Language1531816814FASaeedehDastamoozAssistant Professor, Department of Russian Language, Faculty of Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleThe present investigation has been tried to study participles in the structure of the Russian sentences, the current translations and although it has been provided approaches for accurate matching this category of the grammatical area in the Persian Language. In this study, the constructive method, analysis of examples and translations have been used. Regarding examining the hypothesis that the syntactic role of participles of the Russian language could be effective for correct interpreting of this case in the Persian language, 90 sentences including participles have randomly selected from novels interpreted from Russian into Persian. For instance; Home of the Gentry by Turgenev, War, and Peace by Leo Tolstoy and The Government Inspector by Nikolai Gogol were picked and the procedure of the translating was assessed, finally, the equivalents considered for the participles were examined. The principal hypothesis for the research is: could the participle, as a unit of translation in the Russian text, find a suitable equivalent among the linguistic units of the Persian language? Whether the provided translations reflect the exact meaning of the adjective verbs in the Russian language? What is the solution? The history of linguistic research in the field of the Russian language proves that the question of the lexical and grammatical characteristics of participles was very controversial. The existence or absence of this grammatical category in Persian also raises many questions, and a lot of research has been done in these areas. Despite the research done, there are still many problems in this area. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that for the first time it considers the Russian participle a translation unit when translated from Russian into Persian. Taking into account the basic rules include translating from Russian into Persian, further we will check the correctness of the hypothesis and proposals of our research. Some scholars believe that each of the morphological and syntactic structures used in the original language is an individual style of the author, and if we intend to make an original and correct translation, we must preserve the morphological and syntactic structure of the original text. In this study, it is assumed that the participle in Russian can be considered a unit of translation into Persian, and the translator can take into account the syntactic role of the participle in the sentence and choose a logical approach for its accurate translation. Based on the basic needs of translation, the following suggestions are provided for translating Russian language participles into Persian:
If we have the participial constructions in a Russian sentence, to translate it into Persian we must use an explanatory dependent sentence with the conjunction "که";
If a participle precedes a noun and serves a descriptive role, it must be translated using the adjective or adjectival phrases or the adjectives formed based on verbs;
In order to translate the substantive participles of the Russian language into Persian, we must use Persian nouns.
In order to translate a participle that has a propositional role, we must use a conjugated Persian verb.
Of the 90 examples reviewed, translation of 46 sentences matched the hypothesis of our study; however, in the translation of 44 cases, either the participle was not translated at all, or there was no exact equivalent for it, or words that do not exist in the original text were used to convey the meaning of the participle. Consideration of the research hypothesis showed that in the examples there are cases when their translation corresponded to the research hypothesis, and cases when the proposed rule was not used to translate them. We considered these cases and the possibility of correcting them using the hypothesis of our research. For example this Russian sentence «Это топор, зажаренный вместо говядины» is passive, but for it translation in Persian was used active sentence » «بهجای گوشت گاو، تبر پختهاید (بازرس). Because of this, the structure and atmosphere of the Russian and Persian sentences are different. The proposed translation, corresponding to the hypothesis of our research, is as follows: «این تبری است که بهجای گوشت گاو، سرخ شده». Obviously, using these two sentences in conversational situations will have different consequences for listeners. Whereas the translation should be provoked a reaction similar to the original text. In this Russian sentence:
«Без сомнения, проезжающий чиновник захочет, прежде всего, осмотреть подведомственные вам богоугодные заведения.» equivalent to the composition «проезжающий чиновник» was choose «مأموری که میآید» can be replaced by a descriptive combination according to the research hypothesis «مأمور در حال عبور». We will have:
«بدون شک، مأمور در حال عبور، قبل از هر چیز تمایل به بازدید از مؤسسات خیریۀ زیر نظر شما را خواهد داشت».
The participle was made of the verb «проезжать», and the concept of passing, which is at the root of the verb, must be reflected in the translation of the participle. An analysis of existing translations and a review of the translatability of examples in accordance with the hypothesis of our study confirms the effectiveness of this hypothesis in choosing equivalents for various types of participles in Russian. The participles of the Russian language can be considered as a unit of translation into Persian.
By defining the syntactic role of participles and using the hypothesis presented from this study to translate different types of participles, a step can be taken to standardize the translation of participles. In addition, it is possible to use the achievements of this research in machine and electronic translation.The present investigation has been tried to study participles in the structure of the Russian sentences, the current translations and although it has been provided approaches for accurate matching this category of the grammatical area in the Persian Language. In this study, the constructive method, analysis of examples and translations have been used. Regarding examining the hypothesis that the syntactic role of participles of the Russian language could be effective for correct interpreting of this case in the Persian language, 90 sentences including participles have randomly selected from novels interpreted from Russian into Persian. For instance; Home of the Gentry by Turgenev, War, and Peace by Leo Tolstoy and The Government Inspector by Nikolai Gogol were picked and the procedure of the translating was assessed, finally, the equivalents considered for the participles were examined. The principal hypothesis for the research is: could the participle, as a unit of translation in the Russian text, find a suitable equivalent among the linguistic units of the Persian language? Whether the provided translations reflect the exact meaning of the adjective verbs in the Russian language? What is the solution? The history of linguistic research in the field of the Russian language proves that the question of the lexical and grammatical characteristics of participles was very controversial. The existence or absence of this grammatical category in Persian also raises many questions, and a lot of research has been done in these areas. Despite the research done, there are still many problems in this area. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that for the first time it considers the Russian participle a translation unit when translated from Russian into Persian. Taking into account the basic rules include translating from Russian into Persian, further we will check the correctness of the hypothesis and proposals of our research. Some scholars believe that each of the morphological and syntactic structures used in the original language is an individual style of the author, and if we intend to make an original and correct translation, we must preserve the morphological and syntactic structure of the original text. In this study, it is assumed that the participle in Russian can be considered a unit of translation into Persian, and the translator can take into account the syntactic role of the participle in the sentence and choose a logical approach for its accurate translation. Based on the basic needs of translation, the following suggestions are provided for translating Russian language participles into Persian:
If we have the participial constructions in a Russian sentence, to translate it into Persian we must use an explanatory dependent sentence with the conjunction "که";
If a participle precedes a noun and serves a descriptive role, it must be translated using the adjective or adjectival phrases or the adjectives formed based on verbs;
In order to translate the substantive participles of the Russian language into Persian, we must use Persian nouns.
In order to translate a participle that has a propositional role, we must use a conjugated Persian verb.
Of the 90 examples reviewed, translation of 46 sentences matched the hypothesis of our study; however, in the translation of 44 cases, either the participle was not translated at all, or there was no exact equivalent for it, or words that do not exist in the original text were used to convey the meaning of the participle. Consideration of the research hypothesis showed that in the examples there are cases when their translation corresponded to the research hypothesis, and cases when the proposed rule was not used to translate them. We considered these cases and the possibility of correcting them using the hypothesis of our research. For example this Russian sentence «Это топор, зажаренный вместо говядины» is passive, but for it translation in Persian was used active sentence » «بهجای گوشت گاو، تبر پختهاید (بازرس). Because of this, the structure and atmosphere of the Russian and Persian sentences are different. The proposed translation, corresponding to the hypothesis of our research, is as follows: «این تبری است که بهجای گوشت گاو، سرخ شده». Obviously, using these two sentences in conversational situations will have different consequences for listeners. Whereas the translation should be provoked a reaction similar to the original text. In this Russian sentence:
«Без сомнения, проезжающий чиновник захочет, прежде всего, осмотреть подведомственные вам богоугодные заведения.» equivalent to the composition «проезжающий чиновник» was choose «مأموری که میآید» can be replaced by a descriptive combination according to the research hypothesis «مأمور در حال عبور». We will have:
«بدون شک، مأمور در حال عبور، قبل از هر چیز تمایل به بازدید از مؤسسات خیریۀ زیر نظر شما را خواهد داشت».
The participle was made of the verb «проезжать», and the concept of passing, which is at the root of the verb, must be reflected in the translation of the participle. An analysis of existing translations and a review of the translatability of examples in accordance with the hypothesis of our study confirms the effectiveness of this hypothesis in choosing equivalents for various types of participles in Russian. The participles of the Russian language can be considered as a unit of translation into Persian.
By defining the syntactic role of participles and using the hypothesis presented from this study to translate different types of participles, a step can be taken to standardize the translation of participles. In addition, it is possible to use the achievements of this research in machine and electronic translation.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6814_937936029af671cf479fa893db91cbdd.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The validity of speaking scoring rubric in Ferdowsi Persian Proficiency testThe validity of speaking scoring rubric in Ferdowsi Persian Proficiency test1832106815FAMohsenRoudmajaniPhD Candidate in Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University, Mashhad, IranEhsanGhaboolAssistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University, Mashhad, Iran.Journal ArticleThe ability to speak is an important part of every body’s language proficiency. This ability plays an important role in the academic life of students. But scoring and assessing speaking is not easy. In this research, we try to study the validity of Ferdowsi University’s Persian proficiency test. We know that every test has a certain amount of error; but in scoring speaking ability if the scoring rubric is designed in a scientific way, the score attributed to the speakers' speech ability is likely to be very similar to their actual language ability. In other words, the appropriate scoring rubric can have a significant effect on reducing the error rate of the test. In norm-reference tests, this can be achieved only when test designers can say what scoring constructs they intend to measure and how successful they are in achieving that goal. Also, it should be clear whether the scoring scale can distinguish weak, medium, and strong test takers. On the other hand, in applying the scoring rubric , the level of consensus of the scorers should be clear. In order to see how successful is the scoring rubric in Ferdowsi Persian proficiency test, in measuring the test taker’s speaking ability, the authors analyzed the result of one of the proficiency tests administered at Ferdowsi University with Rasch model and factor analysis. The result showed that scorer reliability is 0.97 which is so high. It showed that scorers have the same understanding of the scoring rubric. This means that the scorers have given the test takers a relatively stable score, which is a strong point for the test. Also, the scores have used the scoring rubric properly because the cut score goes up in an organized way as the ability of test-takers increase. Each of the four thresholds obtained by the Rash statistical model differs by approximately 5 degrees, respectively. A regular increase in thresholds is commensurate with the ability of the test takers. This indicates a correct understanding of the scorers of the 5 grades specified in the scoring rubric; in other words, scorers have a good understanding of the level of competence of test takers and its relationship with the grades in the scoring rubric. The Wright map shoes that the scoring rubric can differentiate basic, intermediate and advanced test-takers well. Although on the top of the map there are 8 test-takers which there is no score for them that means the needs some higher scores for them. On the other hand, factor load for three constructs, delivery, language use and topic development are 0.74, 0.78 and 0.76. This shows that dividing speaking ability into these three constructs is proper while language use has the highest factor load and topic development has the lowest factor load.The ability to speak is an important part of every body’s language proficiency. This ability plays an important role in the academic life of students. But scoring and assessing speaking is not easy. In this research, we try to study the validity of Ferdowsi University’s Persian proficiency test. We know that every test has a certain amount of error; but in scoring speaking ability if the scoring rubric is designed in a scientific way, the score attributed to the speakers' speech ability is likely to be very similar to their actual language ability. In other words, the appropriate scoring rubric can have a significant effect on reducing the error rate of the test. In norm-reference tests, this can be achieved only when test designers can say what scoring constructs they intend to measure and how successful they are in achieving that goal. Also, it should be clear whether the scoring scale can distinguish weak, medium, and strong test takers. On the other hand, in applying the scoring rubric , the level of consensus of the scorers should be clear. In order to see how successful is the scoring rubric in Ferdowsi Persian proficiency test, in measuring the test taker’s speaking ability, the authors analyzed the result of one of the proficiency tests administered at Ferdowsi University with Rasch model and factor analysis. The result showed that scorer reliability is 0.97 which is so high. It showed that scorers have the same understanding of the scoring rubric. This means that the scorers have given the test takers a relatively stable score, which is a strong point for the test. Also, the scores have used the scoring rubric properly because the cut score goes up in an organized way as the ability of test-takers increase. Each of the four thresholds obtained by the Rash statistical model differs by approximately 5 degrees, respectively. A regular increase in thresholds is commensurate with the ability of the test takers. This indicates a correct understanding of the scorers of the 5 grades specified in the scoring rubric; in other words, scorers have a good understanding of the level of competence of test takers and its relationship with the grades in the scoring rubric. The Wright map shoes that the scoring rubric can differentiate basic, intermediate and advanced test-takers well. Although on the top of the map there are 8 test-takers which there is no score for them that means the needs some higher scores for them. On the other hand, factor load for three constructs, delivery, language use and topic development are 0.74, 0.78 and 0.76. This shows that dividing speaking ability into these three constructs is proper while language use has the highest factor load and topic development has the lowest factor load.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6815_da0dba87d95286d836e37ca60ab1e734.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922A Content Analysis of the Elementary School Farsi Reading and Writing Textbooks From Frame Semanticsâ Point of ViewA Content Analysis of the Elementary School Farsi Reading and Writing Textbooks From Frame Semanticsâ Point of View2112406816FAMaryam SadatFayyaziAssistant Professor of University of GuilanHosseinSafi PirloojehAssistant Professor of Institute of Humanities and Cultural StudiesJournal ArticleAim
The textbook as the most important educational tool in the country has a significant role in the curriculum content. Therefore, textbook revision, adding to conceptual richness and avoiding their shortcomings are the main necessities of continuous textbook content analysis. The present article aims at determining the degree of attention of elementary Farsi Reading and Farsi Writing textbooks in Iran to different meanings of a semantic frame.
Questions
The article tries to answer the following questions: ‘in the elementary school Farsi Reading and Farsi Writing textbooks which kind of explicit, collocational, associative, stylistic, grammatical, pragmatic, and implicit meanings are thought?’ And ‘How much each type of meanings is come to notice?’
Research Method
Research has carried out by qualitative method. The statistical population of the study includes all the assignments, texts and exercises of the Farsi Reading and Writing textbooks in the primary school curriculum. The assessment has been conducted, through content analysis method particularly Check-list. The Unit of analysis is ‘word’. The evaluation of curriculum has been done on the basis of Fillmore’s Frame Semantics (1975) and the content of the textbooks is analyzed and described based on the amount of usage of various meanings in a semantic frame.
Innovation
The efficacy of parameters taken from cognitive linguistics especially frame semantics and content analysis interacting as a system in this research is more significant than those elements operating separately. This convergence into an interdisciplinary field would culminate in a fresh and penetrating view of parameters related to language and education which would not be realized by delving into any of these disciplines alone.
Conclusion
The findings of the research reveal that in the first-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, 38.7% of meanings are designated to explicit, 51.6% to collocational and 9.7% to associative meanings. In terms of grammatical categories, all the meanings belong to the category of noun. In addition, ten semantic frames are instructed. Regarding the literacy level of students, most of the presented drills to teach explicit meanings are pictorial. Since the unit of study in this research is word, such cases are ignored. No glossary is appended to this textbook. The first-grade Farsi writing Textbook emphasizes the writing exercises.
The semantic frames of the second-grade Farsi Reading Textbook include 70.2% explicit, 10.6% collocational, 14.9% associative and 4.3% stylistic meanings. Among all the Elementary Farsi Reading and Writing Textbook, the second-grade book is the only one which contains four exercises relating to stylistic meaning. The distribution of noun category is 60.6% in comparison with adjective 30.9%, pronoun 4.25% and onomatopoeia 4.25% respectively. No glossary is appended to the second-grade Farsi Reading Textbook. Considering various types of meanings in the Writing Textbook, 70.2% are designated to explicit, 9.6% to collocational and 20.2% to associative meanings. In terms of grammatical category, 66.7% are dedicated to nouns, 26.3% to adjectives, 5.3% to onomatopoeia and1.7% to verbs.
The third-grade Farsi Reading Textbook contains 60.8% explicit, 33.3% collocational and 5.9% associative meaning of which 56.9% are nouns and 43.1% are adjectives. There is no direct indication to any semantic frames, but students have access to a glossary at the appendix. In the third-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, Percentage of distribution of meanings are 78.3% for explicit and 21.7% for associative ones of which 91/3% are dedicated to nouns and 8.7% to adjectives.
In the fourth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, there is a glossary which gives the explicit meaning of each term. 82.7% exercises are designated to the indirect instruction of explicit and 17.3% to the collocational meanings. In terms of grammatical category, 75.9% are nouns and 24.1% are adjectives. In the fourth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, the distribution of categories of noun and adjective are equal and each of them has 50% portion. There are no signs of any other meanings like collocational or associative ones.
The fifth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook includes the indirect construction of explicit (88.2%) and collocational (11.8%) meanings. There is a glossary containing 292 terms which introduces explicit meaning. Percentage of distribution of grammatical categories are 41.2% nouns, 44.1% adjectives, 5.9% infinitives, 5.9% prepositions and 2.9% verbs. In the fifth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, the explicit meaning rate is 67.6%, being higher than collocational and associative by 20.6% and 11.8% respectively. The distribution of nouns and adjectives take up the same portion of total grammatical categories, 50% for each.
In the sixth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, instruction is at the service of explicit meaning and 100% of which is dedicated to adjectives. The glossary of this book in comparison with other grade textbooks contains more terms, 312 ones. The sixth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook includes 59.2% explicit, 11.1% collocational and 29.7% associative meanings. The ratio of noun to adjective distributions are 51.8% to 48.2%. There is no direct instruction of semantic frame in this textbook.
The content analysis of elementary Farsi Reading and Writing Textbooks from cognitive semantic point of view indicates that the books give the pupils the instruction both directly and indirectly. The students are provided with training of explicit, collocational and associative meanings through reading and writing exercises, the majority of which is dedicated to explicit (67.4%) and the minority to stylistic (0.8%) meanings. Collocational (18.6%) and associative (3.2%) meanings are in between. there is no teaching either directly or indirectly of grammatical, pragmatic, and implicit meanings.Aim
The textbook as the most important educational tool in the country has a significant role in the curriculum content. Therefore, textbook revision, adding to conceptual richness and avoiding their shortcomings are the main necessities of continuous textbook content analysis. The present article aims at determining the degree of attention of elementary Farsi Reading and Farsi Writing textbooks in Iran to different meanings of a semantic frame.
Questions
The article tries to answer the following questions: ‘in the elementary school Farsi Reading and Farsi Writing textbooks which kind of explicit, collocational, associative, stylistic, grammatical, pragmatic, and implicit meanings are thought?’ And ‘How much each type of meanings is come to notice?’
Research Method
Research has carried out by qualitative method. The statistical population of the study includes all the assignments, texts and exercises of the Farsi Reading and Writing textbooks in the primary school curriculum. The assessment has been conducted, through content analysis method particularly Check-list. The Unit of analysis is ‘word’. The evaluation of curriculum has been done on the basis of Fillmore’s Frame Semantics (1975) and the content of the textbooks is analyzed and described based on the amount of usage of various meanings in a semantic frame.
Innovation
The efficacy of parameters taken from cognitive linguistics especially frame semantics and content analysis interacting as a system in this research is more significant than those elements operating separately. This convergence into an interdisciplinary field would culminate in a fresh and penetrating view of parameters related to language and education which would not be realized by delving into any of these disciplines alone.
Conclusion
The findings of the research reveal that in the first-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, 38.7% of meanings are designated to explicit, 51.6% to collocational and 9.7% to associative meanings. In terms of grammatical categories, all the meanings belong to the category of noun. In addition, ten semantic frames are instructed. Regarding the literacy level of students, most of the presented drills to teach explicit meanings are pictorial. Since the unit of study in this research is word, such cases are ignored. No glossary is appended to this textbook. The first-grade Farsi writing Textbook emphasizes the writing exercises.
The semantic frames of the second-grade Farsi Reading Textbook include 70.2% explicit, 10.6% collocational, 14.9% associative and 4.3% stylistic meanings. Among all the Elementary Farsi Reading and Writing Textbook, the second-grade book is the only one which contains four exercises relating to stylistic meaning. The distribution of noun category is 60.6% in comparison with adjective 30.9%, pronoun 4.25% and onomatopoeia 4.25% respectively. No glossary is appended to the second-grade Farsi Reading Textbook. Considering various types of meanings in the Writing Textbook, 70.2% are designated to explicit, 9.6% to collocational and 20.2% to associative meanings. In terms of grammatical category, 66.7% are dedicated to nouns, 26.3% to adjectives, 5.3% to onomatopoeia and1.7% to verbs.
The third-grade Farsi Reading Textbook contains 60.8% explicit, 33.3% collocational and 5.9% associative meaning of which 56.9% are nouns and 43.1% are adjectives. There is no direct indication to any semantic frames, but students have access to a glossary at the appendix. In the third-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, Percentage of distribution of meanings are 78.3% for explicit and 21.7% for associative ones of which 91/3% are dedicated to nouns and 8.7% to adjectives.
In the fourth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, there is a glossary which gives the explicit meaning of each term. 82.7% exercises are designated to the indirect instruction of explicit and 17.3% to the collocational meanings. In terms of grammatical category, 75.9% are nouns and 24.1% are adjectives. In the fourth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, the distribution of categories of noun and adjective are equal and each of them has 50% portion. There are no signs of any other meanings like collocational or associative ones.
The fifth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook includes the indirect construction of explicit (88.2%) and collocational (11.8%) meanings. There is a glossary containing 292 terms which introduces explicit meaning. Percentage of distribution of grammatical categories are 41.2% nouns, 44.1% adjectives, 5.9% infinitives, 5.9% prepositions and 2.9% verbs. In the fifth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook, the explicit meaning rate is 67.6%, being higher than collocational and associative by 20.6% and 11.8% respectively. The distribution of nouns and adjectives take up the same portion of total grammatical categories, 50% for each.
In the sixth-grade Farsi Reading Textbook, instruction is at the service of explicit meaning and 100% of which is dedicated to adjectives. The glossary of this book in comparison with other grade textbooks contains more terms, 312 ones. The sixth-grade Farsi Writing Textbook includes 59.2% explicit, 11.1% collocational and 29.7% associative meanings. The ratio of noun to adjective distributions are 51.8% to 48.2%. There is no direct instruction of semantic frame in this textbook.
The content analysis of elementary Farsi Reading and Writing Textbooks from cognitive semantic point of view indicates that the books give the pupils the instruction both directly and indirectly. The students are provided with training of explicit, collocational and associative meanings through reading and writing exercises, the majority of which is dedicated to explicit (67.4%) and the minority to stylistic (0.8%) meanings. Collocational (18.6%) and associative (3.2%) meanings are in between. there is no teaching either directly or indirectly of grammatical, pragmatic, and implicit meanings.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6816_8383f931b0cefcc631f070480ef340e1.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Investigating Different Ways of Achieving the Sonority Sequencing Principle and the Syllable Contact Law: Optimality TheoryInvestigating Different Ways of Achieving the Sonority Sequencing Principle and the Syllable Contact Law: Optimality Theory2412656817FALeilaSalimiPh.D. Candidate in Linguistics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranAliehKord Zaferanloo KamboziaAssociate Professor, Linguistics Department, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.Journal ArticleThe purpose of this study is to investigate those phonological processes, speakers of Persian language and some of Iranian dialects use in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle (SSP) and the syllable contact law (SCL). Among the questions we would like answer the following questions: 1. what phonological processes are used by the speakers of Persian language and some types of Iranian languages in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle and the syllable contact law and 2. What effect does the syllable number of the word have on the application of phonological processes?. Based on the mentioned questions, these hypotheses can be made: 1. the speakers of language use the phonological processes of compensatory lengthening, metathesis, insertion, deletion and substitution in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle and the syllable contact law 2. The syllable number of the simple words does not have any effect on the application of phonological processes.
However, in order to do this research, data of Persian language are collected from the spoken language of the speakers. Then, their phonological forms are compared with Moshiri’s dictionary (2008). Data of Kordi Hurami dialect are gathered through interview with the speakers and data of Lafuri, Torbat Heidariye and Sabzevari dialects are extracted from Kambuziya (2006).
Out of 1125 gathered simple words that do not conform to the SSP and the SCL, the phonological processes of 'compensatory lengthening', 'metathesis', 'insertion', 'deletion' and 'substitution of a phonological unit with another phonological unit' are applied to 357 words by language speakers. In sum, the frequency analysis of data shows that:
The deletion of the glottal consonants / ʔ / and / h / is more frequent in the two syllable words. In other words, this process occurs in 66/19 percent of disyllabic words, 23/94 percent of tri syllabic words and 9/85 percent of one syllable words. Furthermore, the constraint hierarchy for the phonological process of deletion of the glottal consonants and the compensatory lengthening of a vowel can be illustrated as: SON-SEQ>> No cluster-glottal, MAX-μ >> MAX-IO.
The phonological process of metathesis is more frequent in the disyllabic words. This process occurs in 65/74 percent of two syllable words, 25 percent of monosyllabic words and 9/25 percent of three syllable words. In addition, the constraint hierarchy for the application of metathesis can be shown as: SON-SEQ>> LINEARITY and SCL>> LINEARITY.
The process of insertion is more frequent in the disyllabicwords. This process occurs in 96/87 percent of disyllabic words and in 3/12 percent of monosyllabic words. The constraint hierarchy of this process can be indicated as: SON-SEQ>> DEP-IO.
An investigation of the extracted Persian simple words shows that the sonority sequencing principle is not observed in 24 words with the structure of /CVC1C2 / . In these cases, the process of deletion is not applied. When the speakers use these monosyllabic simple words in combination with other linguistic elements, the deletion of the final consonant occurs. However, the constraint hierarchy of this process can be illustrated as: SON-SEQ>> MAX-IO.
The process of substitution occurs in some words of kordi Hurami dialect. In other words, when the sonority sequencing principle is not observed in the initial consonant cluster, the second member of the cluster which is less sonorant than the first member is substituted with another consonant which is more sonorant than the first member. The constraint hierarchy of this phonological process can be shown as: SON-SEQ>> *STOP/#C >> IDENT (manner).
Thus, it can be argued that these processes are applied to mono, di and tri syllabic words among which the frequency of disyllabic words is more than that of one and tri syllabic words.The purpose of this study is to investigate those phonological processes, speakers of Persian language and some of Iranian dialects use in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle (SSP) and the syllable contact law (SCL). Among the questions we would like answer the following questions: 1. what phonological processes are used by the speakers of Persian language and some types of Iranian languages in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle and the syllable contact law and 2. What effect does the syllable number of the word have on the application of phonological processes?. Based on the mentioned questions, these hypotheses can be made: 1. the speakers of language use the phonological processes of compensatory lengthening, metathesis, insertion, deletion and substitution in order to observe the sonority sequencing principle and the syllable contact law 2. The syllable number of the simple words does not have any effect on the application of phonological processes.
However, in order to do this research, data of Persian language are collected from the spoken language of the speakers. Then, their phonological forms are compared with Moshiri’s dictionary (2008). Data of Kordi Hurami dialect are gathered through interview with the speakers and data of Lafuri, Torbat Heidariye and Sabzevari dialects are extracted from Kambuziya (2006).
Out of 1125 gathered simple words that do not conform to the SSP and the SCL, the phonological processes of 'compensatory lengthening', 'metathesis', 'insertion', 'deletion' and 'substitution of a phonological unit with another phonological unit' are applied to 357 words by language speakers. In sum, the frequency analysis of data shows that:
The deletion of the glottal consonants / ʔ / and / h / is more frequent in the two syllable words. In other words, this process occurs in 66/19 percent of disyllabic words, 23/94 percent of tri syllabic words and 9/85 percent of one syllable words. Furthermore, the constraint hierarchy for the phonological process of deletion of the glottal consonants and the compensatory lengthening of a vowel can be illustrated as: SON-SEQ>> No cluster-glottal, MAX-μ >> MAX-IO.
The phonological process of metathesis is more frequent in the disyllabic words. This process occurs in 65/74 percent of two syllable words, 25 percent of monosyllabic words and 9/25 percent of three syllable words. In addition, the constraint hierarchy for the application of metathesis can be shown as: SON-SEQ>> LINEARITY and SCL>> LINEARITY.
The process of insertion is more frequent in the disyllabicwords. This process occurs in 96/87 percent of disyllabic words and in 3/12 percent of monosyllabic words. The constraint hierarchy of this process can be indicated as: SON-SEQ>> DEP-IO.
An investigation of the extracted Persian simple words shows that the sonority sequencing principle is not observed in 24 words with the structure of /CVC1C2 / . In these cases, the process of deletion is not applied. When the speakers use these monosyllabic simple words in combination with other linguistic elements, the deletion of the final consonant occurs. However, the constraint hierarchy of this process can be illustrated as: SON-SEQ>> MAX-IO.
The process of substitution occurs in some words of kordi Hurami dialect. In other words, when the sonority sequencing principle is not observed in the initial consonant cluster, the second member of the cluster which is less sonorant than the first member is substituted with another consonant which is more sonorant than the first member. The constraint hierarchy of this phonological process can be shown as: SON-SEQ>> *STOP/#C >> IDENT (manner).
Thus, it can be argued that these processes are applied to mono, di and tri syllabic words among which the frequency of disyllabic words is more than that of one and tri syllabic words.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6817_f845cbb24a82dabdee971c6f7719f89d.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Effects of a Second Language Reading Strategy Instruction on Iranian EFL Learnersâ Reading Comprehension and Reading AnxietyThe Effects of a Second Language Reading Strategy Instruction on Iranian EFL Learnersâ Reading Comprehension and Reading Anxiety2672956818FAJalilFathiAssistant Professor of English Language Teaching, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, IranMohsenShirazizadehAssistant Professor of English Language Teaching, Alzahra University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleThe objective of the current paper was set to examine the effect of second language reading strategy instruction on young Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ reading comprehension and reading anxiety. Although a growing body of empirical studies have employed CALLA as a framework for L2 reading strategy instruction, there is a scarcity of empirical studies exploring the effectiveness of this model for reading strategy instruction among young learners in EFL contexts (Manoli, Papadopoulou, & Metallidou, 2016). The importance of conducting strategy-instruction studies involving younger L2 learners has been called for by numerous researchers (e.g., Chamot, 2005; Macaro & Erler, 2008; Manoli, Papadopoulou, & Metallidou, 2016) since the vast majority of studies have recruited older students. Moreover, as discussed above the construct of FL reading anxiety has remained under-researched in L2 empirical studies. For these reasons, the current study was set to explore the impact of L2 reading strategy instruction, set within CALLA model, on young Iranian EFL learners’ reading comprehension and reading anxiety.
To accomplish this objective, a sample of 48 young Iranian EFL learners were selected and randomly assigned to an experimental group (N = 25) and a control group (N = 23). To guarantee the homogeneity of the experimental and the control groups in terms of general English proficiency level “Oxford Placement Test” (OPT) (Allan, 2004) was given to the students of both groups. The results obtained from OPT indicated that the learner were of lower intermediate level of language proficiency (B1). The two classes were taught by the same teacher who employed the same course book and materials. The experimental intervention (i.e., reading strategy instruction) lasted for a period of 12 weeks.
Employing a quasi-experimental design, the study employed an experimental group that received a second language reading strategy instruction for a period of one semester and a control group that were taught with regular method with no strategy instruction but they were measured in terms of reading comprehension and reading anxiety before and after the strategy instruction. The strategy instruction intervention for the present study was based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) (Chamot & O`Malley, 1994) framework developed by Chamot et al. (1999) which constitutes five key stages including preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. In this framework, the instruction gradually moves from a highly explicit instruction to a more implicit teaching of using strategies to learning tasks so that the language learners can begin to accept more responsibility in selecting and implementing appropriate learning strategies. This cycle reiterates when new strategies are added to students’ strategic repertoires. In the meantime, the control group students were taught traditionally without receiving any explicit instruction of L2 reading strategies. More specifically, the procedure adopted for the control group was to make the students read a text aloud and translate it. During the sessions, the teacher taught the new vocabularies and provided the students with oral comprehension questions following passage reading.
The reading component of Cambridge Preliminary English Test (CPET) and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) were administered to assess the reading comprehension performance and reading anxiety of the participants as pre-test and post-test of the study.
The findings of the study revealed that the learners in the experimental group outperformed those of control group with regard to reading comprehension after receiving the strategy instruction intervention. The results of this research indicated that the students of the experimental group significantly outperformed those of control group with regard to reading comprehension ability, suggesting that the reading strategy instruction was influential in fostering L2 reading comprehension of the young Iranian EFL learners. The results of this research are in agreement with those of previous empirical studies (Aghaie & Zhang, 2012; Akkakoson, 2013; Dabarera, Renandya, & Zhang, 2014; Zhang, 2008, among others) and are at variance with the findings of Shang (2010). More particularly, concerning the young EFL learners as the participants of this study, it was revealed that the findings of the present study corroborated and extended the findings of Manoli, Papadopoulou, and Metallidou (2016) that supported the effectiveness of strategy use and instruction in improving reading comprehension among young, school-aged students.
Moreover, it was revealed that the reading strategy instruction reduced the reading anxiety of the participants. Pedagogical implications on reading strategy instruction were finally discussed. This finding is in line with the findings of a number of previous empirical studies which suggested that the use of comprehension strategies can decrease reading anxiety of the students (Gahungu, 2007; Lien, 2016; Naseri & Zaferanieh, 2012). This is also consistent with the claim that there are interactions between general foreign language anxiety and strategy use (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994; Rahimi & Zhang, 2014). It might be argued that the improvement reading performance by strategy instruction has helped the participants to reduce their reading anxiety.
As far as practical implications of the study are concerned, it is suggested that EFL practitioners need to integrate reading strategy instruction into their regular L2 classrooms in order to improve reading performance of their students. Nevertheless, the teachers themselves should be trained on how to teach strategies effectively. If teachers are now equipped with the knowledge and awareness of reading strategies, they will not be able to implement strategy-based instruction (Zhang & Wu, 2009).The objective of the current paper was set to examine the effect of second language reading strategy instruction on young Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ reading comprehension and reading anxiety. Although a growing body of empirical studies have employed CALLA as a framework for L2 reading strategy instruction, there is a scarcity of empirical studies exploring the effectiveness of this model for reading strategy instruction among young learners in EFL contexts (Manoli, Papadopoulou, & Metallidou, 2016). The importance of conducting strategy-instruction studies involving younger L2 learners has been called for by numerous researchers (e.g., Chamot, 2005; Macaro & Erler, 2008; Manoli, Papadopoulou, & Metallidou, 2016) since the vast majority of studies have recruited older students. Moreover, as discussed above the construct of FL reading anxiety has remained under-researched in L2 empirical studies. For these reasons, the current study was set to explore the impact of L2 reading strategy instruction, set within CALLA model, on young Iranian EFL learners’ reading comprehension and reading anxiety.
To accomplish this objective, a sample of 48 young Iranian EFL learners were selected and randomly assigned to an experimental group (N = 25) and a control group (N = 23). To guarantee the homogeneity of the experimental and the control groups in terms of general English proficiency level “Oxford Placement Test” (OPT) (Allan, 2004) was given to the students of both groups. The results obtained from OPT indicated that the learner were of lower intermediate level of language proficiency (B1). The two classes were taught by the same teacher who employed the same course book and materials. The experimental intervention (i.e., reading strategy instruction) lasted for a period of 12 weeks.
Employing a quasi-experimental design, the study employed an experimental group that received a second language reading strategy instruction for a period of one semester and a control group that were taught with regular method with no strategy instruction but they were measured in terms of reading comprehension and reading anxiety before and after the strategy instruction. The strategy instruction intervention for the present study was based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) (Chamot & O`Malley, 1994) framework developed by Chamot et al. (1999) which constitutes five key stages including preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. In this framework, the instruction gradually moves from a highly explicit instruction to a more implicit teaching of using strategies to learning tasks so that the language learners can begin to accept more responsibility in selecting and implementing appropriate learning strategies. This cycle reiterates when new strategies are added to students’ strategic repertoires. In the meantime, the control group students were taught traditionally without receiving any explicit instruction of L2 reading strategies. More specifically, the procedure adopted for the control group was to make the students read a text aloud and translate it. During the sessions, the teacher taught the new vocabularies and provided the students with oral comprehension questions following passage reading.
The reading component of Cambridge Preliminary English Test (CPET) and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) were administered to assess the reading comprehension performance and reading anxiety of the participants as pre-test and post-test of the study.
The findings of the study revealed that the learners in the experimental group outperformed those of control group with regard to reading comprehension after receiving the strategy instruction intervention. The results of this research indicated that the students of the experimental group significantly outperformed those of control group with regard to reading comprehension ability, suggesting that the reading strategy instruction was influential in fostering L2 reading comprehension of the young Iranian EFL learners. The results of this research are in agreement with those of previous empirical studies (Aghaie & Zhang, 2012; Akkakoson, 2013; Dabarera, Renandya, & Zhang, 2014; Zhang, 2008, among others) and are at variance with the findings of Shang (2010). More particularly, concerning the young EFL learners as the participants of this study, it was revealed that the findings of the present study corroborated and extended the findings of Manoli, Papadopoulou, and Metallidou (2016) that supported the effectiveness of strategy use and instruction in improving reading comprehension among young, school-aged students.
Moreover, it was revealed that the reading strategy instruction reduced the reading anxiety of the participants. Pedagogical implications on reading strategy instruction were finally discussed. This finding is in line with the findings of a number of previous empirical studies which suggested that the use of comprehension strategies can decrease reading anxiety of the students (Gahungu, 2007; Lien, 2016; Naseri & Zaferanieh, 2012). This is also consistent with the claim that there are interactions between general foreign language anxiety and strategy use (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994; Rahimi & Zhang, 2014). It might be argued that the improvement reading performance by strategy instruction has helped the participants to reduce their reading anxiety.
As far as practical implications of the study are concerned, it is suggested that EFL practitioners need to integrate reading strategy instruction into their regular L2 classrooms in order to improve reading performance of their students. Nevertheless, the teachers themselves should be trained on how to teach strategies effectively. If teachers are now equipped with the knowledge and awareness of reading strategies, they will not be able to implement strategy-based instruction (Zhang & Wu, 2009).https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6818_a3842ed7b3d0fe3ac263bcabd2999790.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Statistical Analysis of Vocabulary Interference and its Role in Writing Skill of Arabic languageStatistical Analysis of Vocabulary Interference and its Role in Writing Skill of Arabic language2973266819FAIsaMottaghizadehAssociate Professor, Department of Arabic Language and Literature, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran0009-0005-2732-5774TaherehKhanabadiGraduate of Arabic Language Teaching, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleAlthough the existence of common words between Persian and Arabic languages occasionally facilitates learning Arabic for Persian speakers, it also causes numerous problems, including linguistic interference, for language learners putting language skills into action. Overall, language similarities between Persian and Arabic can be classified into two types: structural and lexical. Lexical similarities may have three different major kinds: 1. similarities in the shape of writing and meaning occurring in nouns, verbs, and letters, with the highest frequencies in nouns; 2. similarities in the shape of writing and complete or partial contrast in meaning, which is mostly seen in nouns and occasionally in verbs; and 3. partial similarities in meaning and contrast in form which is typically observed in Arabic and Persian prepositions. In the current research, not taking structural similarities into consideration and employing a descriptive-analytical survey approach, the effect of common words between Persian and Arabic languages on the writing skill of undergraduate students of Arabic Language and Literature was studied. The statistical population of this research consists of 10 state universities, including Arak, Tehran, Bu-Ali Sina, Kharazmi, Al-Zahra, Guilan, Shahid Beheshti, Shiraz, Allameh Tabataba’i, and Ferdowsi universities. It also includes 199 undergraduate students passing Writing Skill 1 or 3 courses. Since the current study examined the common words between Arabic and Persian languages and the effects of the words on Arabic language learners’ writing from a contrastive perspective, it is considered a pioneer study in this field. The research questions are as follows:
1. How good are the students’ vocabulary skills regarding the common words between Arabic and Persian languages in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses?
2. How does the time difference of offering writing skill courses affect students’ vocabulary banks?
To answer the research questions, we used a self-constructed test including the common words between Arabic and Persian languages. The test was designed in four steps:
1. Collecting language learners’ highest frequency errors and including them in the test.
2. Test verification: After predicting language learners’ errors, the test was designed and 6 copies of the test were given to 6 language skills professors. Modifications were made on the test based on the experts’ comments and then the test reliability was confirmed.
3. Conducting the test: The Writing Skill 1 and 3 tests were given to students in Shahid Beheshti and Allameh Tabataba’i universities. After examining the language learners’ performance, the test was modified. The reliability coefficients were obtained for both tests. In the next step, the test was given to the students in all the above-mentioned universities.
4. Test analysis: to analyze the test, both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed. According to the quantitative method, the students’ correct answers were marked once (out of 100). The researchers used t-test to determine whether the means of the two universities’ marks in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses are equal to each other. And to examine the effect of the time of offering the course on these errors, logistic regression analysis was employed.
Logically speaking, the signifier with a stabilized signified in our minds causes problems when referring to a different signified. In other words, it is less problematic to relate two different concepts (signified) to two different words in two languages than to relate a common word between two languages to two different concepts and, simultaneously, be cautious enough not to get the different concepts in the two languages mixed up. A lack of awareness of the common words’ semantic and practical differences results in linguistic interference. Given the high frequency of Arabic words in Persian language, mostly with semantic, structural, and practical differences, the phenomenon of linguistic interference is typically expected in the process of learning Arabic language by Persian speakers. To perceive the differences and similarities of the common words between Arabic and Persian languages, a contrastive study was conducted. As for the next step, error analysis, which is the next stage in a contrastive study, was employed because a contrastive study predicts the errors by comparing two language levels and discovering the similarities and differences between two languages, while error analysis either confirms or rejects the predictions. Furthermore, the analysis of linguistic errors, including linguistic interference, provides the researcher with a picture of language learners’ progress and enables him to identify their learning dimensions and address the overlooked aspect of teaching process; by focusing on this aspect in the process of teaching and learning a language, the researcher can help fix the problem. The research results revealed the fact that after passing the writing skill courses, the students’ vocabulary banks were significantly expanded. Also, there is a direct relationship between learners’ language interferences and the semester during which they take the course but this relationship disappears, once they pass the first two writing skill courses and start taking Writing Skill 3. This shows language learners’ capability in using the vocabulary in Writing Skill 3 course. Further, the t-test results highlighted the significance of students’ progress in Writing Skill 3, compared to their abilities in Writing Skill 1 course, in all the above-mentioned universities except Tehran and Kharazmi universities. However, the classification of students’ marks in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses indicated that this progress was inconsiderable because none of these universities got top marks. This finding showed that despite the students’ progress in vocabulary skills during Writing Skill 3 course, compared to Writing Skill 1, they still had problems determining the semantic differences between common words as well as using the vocabulary in Arabic language. The factors leading to this weakness include vocabulary interference and vocabulary deficit. The domination of grammar-based thinking in the minds of most of the students has made them assume that a correct sentence in Arabic language is the one which is grammatically and syntactically correct. It is likely that the difference in Arabic and Persian grammars, due to their belonging to different language families, causes more problems for Persian speakers trying to learn Arabic language. However, the attitude of Arabic language teaching departments in Iran may have been effective. In other words, in teaching Arabic, the focus is mostly on learning the grammar rather than communicating and conveying a message to any target language speakers.Although the existence of common words between Persian and Arabic languages occasionally facilitates learning Arabic for Persian speakers, it also causes numerous problems, including linguistic interference, for language learners putting language skills into action. Overall, language similarities between Persian and Arabic can be classified into two types: structural and lexical. Lexical similarities may have three different major kinds: 1. similarities in the shape of writing and meaning occurring in nouns, verbs, and letters, with the highest frequencies in nouns; 2. similarities in the shape of writing and complete or partial contrast in meaning, which is mostly seen in nouns and occasionally in verbs; and 3. partial similarities in meaning and contrast in form which is typically observed in Arabic and Persian prepositions. In the current research, not taking structural similarities into consideration and employing a descriptive-analytical survey approach, the effect of common words between Persian and Arabic languages on the writing skill of undergraduate students of Arabic Language and Literature was studied. The statistical population of this research consists of 10 state universities, including Arak, Tehran, Bu-Ali Sina, Kharazmi, Al-Zahra, Guilan, Shahid Beheshti, Shiraz, Allameh Tabataba’i, and Ferdowsi universities. It also includes 199 undergraduate students passing Writing Skill 1 or 3 courses. Since the current study examined the common words between Arabic and Persian languages and the effects of the words on Arabic language learners’ writing from a contrastive perspective, it is considered a pioneer study in this field. The research questions are as follows:
1. How good are the students’ vocabulary skills regarding the common words between Arabic and Persian languages in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses?
2. How does the time difference of offering writing skill courses affect students’ vocabulary banks?
To answer the research questions, we used a self-constructed test including the common words between Arabic and Persian languages. The test was designed in four steps:
1. Collecting language learners’ highest frequency errors and including them in the test.
2. Test verification: After predicting language learners’ errors, the test was designed and 6 copies of the test were given to 6 language skills professors. Modifications were made on the test based on the experts’ comments and then the test reliability was confirmed.
3. Conducting the test: The Writing Skill 1 and 3 tests were given to students in Shahid Beheshti and Allameh Tabataba’i universities. After examining the language learners’ performance, the test was modified. The reliability coefficients were obtained for both tests. In the next step, the test was given to the students in all the above-mentioned universities.
4. Test analysis: to analyze the test, both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed. According to the quantitative method, the students’ correct answers were marked once (out of 100). The researchers used t-test to determine whether the means of the two universities’ marks in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses are equal to each other. And to examine the effect of the time of offering the course on these errors, logistic regression analysis was employed.
Logically speaking, the signifier with a stabilized signified in our minds causes problems when referring to a different signified. In other words, it is less problematic to relate two different concepts (signified) to two different words in two languages than to relate a common word between two languages to two different concepts and, simultaneously, be cautious enough not to get the different concepts in the two languages mixed up. A lack of awareness of the common words’ semantic and practical differences results in linguistic interference. Given the high frequency of Arabic words in Persian language, mostly with semantic, structural, and practical differences, the phenomenon of linguistic interference is typically expected in the process of learning Arabic language by Persian speakers. To perceive the differences and similarities of the common words between Arabic and Persian languages, a contrastive study was conducted. As for the next step, error analysis, which is the next stage in a contrastive study, was employed because a contrastive study predicts the errors by comparing two language levels and discovering the similarities and differences between two languages, while error analysis either confirms or rejects the predictions. Furthermore, the analysis of linguistic errors, including linguistic interference, provides the researcher with a picture of language learners’ progress and enables him to identify their learning dimensions and address the overlooked aspect of teaching process; by focusing on this aspect in the process of teaching and learning a language, the researcher can help fix the problem. The research results revealed the fact that after passing the writing skill courses, the students’ vocabulary banks were significantly expanded. Also, there is a direct relationship between learners’ language interferences and the semester during which they take the course but this relationship disappears, once they pass the first two writing skill courses and start taking Writing Skill 3. This shows language learners’ capability in using the vocabulary in Writing Skill 3 course. Further, the t-test results highlighted the significance of students’ progress in Writing Skill 3, compared to their abilities in Writing Skill 1 course, in all the above-mentioned universities except Tehran and Kharazmi universities. However, the classification of students’ marks in Writing Skill 1 and 3 courses indicated that this progress was inconsiderable because none of these universities got top marks. This finding showed that despite the students’ progress in vocabulary skills during Writing Skill 3 course, compared to Writing Skill 1, they still had problems determining the semantic differences between common words as well as using the vocabulary in Arabic language. The factors leading to this weakness include vocabulary interference and vocabulary deficit. The domination of grammar-based thinking in the minds of most of the students has made them assume that a correct sentence in Arabic language is the one which is grammatically and syntactically correct. It is likely that the difference in Arabic and Persian grammars, due to their belonging to different language families, causes more problems for Persian speakers trying to learn Arabic language. However, the attitude of Arabic language teaching departments in Iran may have been effective. In other words, in teaching Arabic, the focus is mostly on learning the grammar rather than communicating and conveying a message to any target language speakers.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6819_b6f97e6f0fd175613910d613d574d0cb.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Gorani, Hawrami, and Kurdish: A Linguistic Investigation in Reply to Chamanara (1390) and Bamshadi et al (1393, 1394, 1395, 1396)Gorani, Hawrami, and Kurdish: A Linguistic Investigation in Reply to Chamanara (1390) and Bamshadi et al (1393, 1394, 1395, 1396)3273616820FAMahdiSadjadiPh.D in Linguistics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.Journal ArticleThe present research aims at investigating the linguistic relationship between Gorani, Hawrami, and Kurdish in reply to Chaman Ara (1390) and Bamshadi et al (1393, 1394, 1395, 1396). To this end, authorities’ views in this field, linguistic, literary evidence, and the author’s observations and linguistic intuition have been used. The study of all the cases indicates that Gorani and Hawrami are two signifiers with a single linguistic signified, separate and distinct from Kurdish: Gorani or Hawrami is not a Kurdish variety, but a separate language belonging to the northwestern branch of Iranian languages and possessing its own dialects, despite the public image. The cause of considering Gorani/ Hawrami a Kurdish variety has been only the speakersʼ residence of these two varieties in a specific geographical area, their fusion, and the linguistic similarities between the varieties, especially lexical and morphological, resulting from the influence of Gorani/ Hawrami on Kurdish that has been the official, literary, and court language of the so-called Kurdistan until the second part of the 19th century.The development of Kurdish nationalist movements in recent decades based on the notion of "nation- state" and "one nation-one language" in consequence of it, has also aggravated the situation leading to linguistic assimilation of most Gorans/ Hawrams and preventing them from their linguistic self-awareness
Keywords: Iranian linguistics, Gorani, Hawrami, Kurdish.
Table
Some words related to very common and general elements in Gorani (Hawrami), Assimilated Gorani/ Hawrami (Kalhori), Kalhori, Fayli, Laki, Lori, and Sorani Kurdish:
گورانی (هَورامی)
گورانی/هورامی همگونشده[1](کلهری)
کلهری
فیلی
لکی
لری[2]
کردی سورانی
معادل فارسی
tɑta
bɑwək
bɑwɡ
bawəɡ
bɑwa
bow/bowa
bɑwk
پدر
ʔaɹɑ
dɑɫək/dɑ
dɑɫəɡ
dɑɫəɡ
dɑ
dej/dɑɑ
dɑjk
مادر
knɑʧe
düat
düat
düat
det
doar/doχtər
kəʧ
دختر
sjɑw
sja
Sja
sja
sə
se/se
ɍaʃ
سیاه
ʧarma
ʧarməɡ
ʧarməɡ
sefed/ʧarməɡ
ʧarmə
sefi/ʔespe
spi/ʧarmu
سفید
jva
jak
Jak
jak
jak
ja/jek, je
jak
یک (عدد)
jare
se
se
se
se
se/se
se
سه (عدد)
ʧam
ʧaw
ʧaw
ʧam
ʧam
teja/teja
ʧɑw
چشم
har
χar
χar/ kar
χar
χar
χar/χar
kar
خر
lv(w)ɑj/ʃjaj
ʧin
ʧin
ʧɡəɡən
ʧin
ɍatan/ɍata
ʧun/ɍojʃtən
رفتن
java
ʤüa
ʤüa
ʤwa
ʤü
ʤo/ʤo
ʤo
جو
jahar
ʤəɡər
ʤəɡər/ʤarɡ
ʤəɡər/ʤarɡ
ʤeɡar
ʤeɡr/ʤəɡər
ʤɡar/ʤarɡ
جگر
wɑrɹ(d)aj
χwɑdən
χwɑrdən
χwɑrdən
howɑrdən
χardan/harda
χwɑrdən
خوردن
we
χwa
χwad
χwaj
weʤ(ʒ)
χod/χod
χo
خود
v(w)ɑ
wɑ
wɑ
wɑ
vɑ
bɑj/bɑd, bɑj
bɑ
باد
v(w)ɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
vɑro
bɑrun/bɑo
bɑrɑn
باران
v(w)arv(w)a
wafər
wafər
wafər
vjar
barf/barf
bafər
برف
wtaj
χaftən
χaftən
χaftən
vətən
χosajan/hofteja
χawtən
خوابیدن
mɑzi
pəʃt
mɑzəɡ
pəʃt
pəʃt
pas/poʃt, kət
pəʃt
پشت (بدن)
v(w)rataj
frutən
fratən
fruʃən
fərutən
ferotan/froχta
froʃtən
فروختن
harmɑna
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr/kɑr
kɑr
کار
jɑɡe
ʤe
ʤe
ʤi
ʤɑ
ʤɑ/ʤɑ, lez
ʤeɡa
جا
jɑna
mɑɫ
mɑɫ
mɑɫ/χɑnəɡ
mɑɫ
huna/χowna
mɑɫ
خانه
ʔɑmɑj
hɑtən
hɑtən
hɑtən
hɑtən
ʔumajan/ʔomɑja
hɑtən
آمدن
jɑv(w)ɑj
ɍasin
ɍasin
ɍasin
ɍasin
rasijan/ɍasəsa
ɡaj(i)ʃtən
رسیدن
kjɑnɑj/kjɑs(t)aj
kəl kərdən
kəl kərdən
kəl kərdən
henɑrdən
ferestɑjan/frəsnɑja
nɑrdən
فرستادن
mərɹɑj/mədrɑj
wsɑn
wsɑn
wsɑn
husɑjn
vejsɑjan/ʔisɑja
vesɑn
ایستادن
ma(e)ɍjɑj
ʃkɑnən
ʃkɑnən
ʃəkjɑn
ʃekonən
ʔeʃkasan/ʔeʃkanaja
ʃkɑn
شکستن
karɡa
mɑmər
mɑmər
mərg/mərx/mɑmər
merχ
morq/morʁ
mɑmər/mriʃk
مرغ
dəm
kir
ker
kir/taʒak
kər
kir/kir
ker
آلت تناسلی مرد
wɫa
konɑ
konɑ
konɑ
konɑ
sema/silɑ
kon
سوراخ
lamma
zək
zəɡ
zəɡ
lam
kom/ɡəja
s(z)ək
شکم
tuta
saɡ/ɡamɑɫ
ɡamɑɫ
saɡ/ɡamɑɫ
saɡ
saɡ/sej
saɡ
سگ
daɡɑ
ʔɑwɑji
djaka
djaka
dəhɑt
deh/ʔɑbɑdi
ʔɑwɑi/ɡond
روستا
maj
kɑwəɍ
kɑwəɍ
kɑwəɍ
pas
miʃ/ɡusfa
paz/maɍ
گوسفند
ʧamʧa
ʧəmʧa
qɑʃəq
qɑʃəq
kɑʃeχ
qɑʃoq/qɑʃoq
kawʧək
قاشق
smari
kaj
Ke
ke
keja
ka/kah
kɑ
کاه
pɑɫɑ
kawʃ
kawʃ
kawʃ/piɫɑ
kəɫɑʃ
kafʃ/kawʃ
kawʃ
کفش
ʧani
darzi
darzi
darzen
darzen
sizan/siza
darzi
سوزن
haʃʃa
χərs
χərs
χərs/hərʧ/qərʧ
χers
χers/χərs
wərʧ
خرس
hezi
düaka
düka
dwaka
düna
diɡ/duʃ
dweka
دیروز
pere
dəsu
dəsu
dəsu
dusü
pasabɑ/dosu
dubajɑni
پس فردا
zɑroɫa
mnɑɫ
mnɑɫ
zɑɍu
owjl
baʧa/baʧa
mnɑɫ
بچه
ɡʤi
ʃawi
ʃaw
kərwɑs
kərɑs
ʤuma/pirhan
krɑs
پیراهن
wɑmi
bɑjam
bɑɑm
bɑjam
bɑjm
bɑjom/bɑjm
bɑdɑm
بادام
veʒan
ʤɑʤək
ʤɑʤəɡ
ʤɑʤəɡ
ʤɑʤək
saqez/breʒa
ʤɑʤka/bneʃt
سقز
halʧi
qɑrʧək
qɑrʧək
χarʧəɡ
χɑrʧ
qɑrʧ/qɑrʧ
qɑrʧək
قارچ (خوراکی)
tavani
koʧək
koʧək
sɑn/bard/koʧək
koʧək
bard/bard
bard
سنگ
haɫiza
maʃka
maʃka
kona
maʃka
maʃk/maʃk
maʃka
مشک
ʒaraʒi
kaw
Kaw
kaw
köjɡ
kabk/kabk
kaw
کبک
ʤa
la
la/wa
da/ʒa
e
va/da
la
از (حرف اضافه)
sotaj/soʧnɑj
sozjɑn/ sozɑnən
səzjɑn/ szɑnən
sozjɑn/ suzanən
sotən/ sozonən
sotan, sotan/ soχta, suzənja
sutɑn/ sutɑndən
سوختن/ سوزاندنThe present research aims at investigating the linguistic relationship between Gorani, Hawrami, and Kurdish in reply to Chaman Ara (1390) and Bamshadi et al (1393, 1394, 1395, 1396). To this end, authorities’ views in this field, linguistic, literary evidence, and the author’s observations and linguistic intuition have been used. The study of all the cases indicates that Gorani and Hawrami are two signifiers with a single linguistic signified, separate and distinct from Kurdish: Gorani or Hawrami is not a Kurdish variety, but a separate language belonging to the northwestern branch of Iranian languages and possessing its own dialects, despite the public image. The cause of considering Gorani/ Hawrami a Kurdish variety has been only the speakersʼ residence of these two varieties in a specific geographical area, their fusion, and the linguistic similarities between the varieties, especially lexical and morphological, resulting from the influence of Gorani/ Hawrami on Kurdish that has been the official, literary, and court language of the so-called Kurdistan until the second part of the 19th century.The development of Kurdish nationalist movements in recent decades based on the notion of "nation- state" and "one nation-one language" in consequence of it, has also aggravated the situation leading to linguistic assimilation of most Gorans/ Hawrams and preventing them from their linguistic self-awareness
Keywords: Iranian linguistics, Gorani, Hawrami, Kurdish.
Table
Some words related to very common and general elements in Gorani (Hawrami), Assimilated Gorani/ Hawrami (Kalhori), Kalhori, Fayli, Laki, Lori, and Sorani Kurdish:
گورانی (هَورامی)
گورانی/هورامی همگونشده[1](کلهری)
کلهری
فیلی
لکی
لری[2]
کردی سورانی
معادل فارسی
tɑta
bɑwək
bɑwɡ
bawəɡ
bɑwa
bow/bowa
bɑwk
پدر
ʔaɹɑ
dɑɫək/dɑ
dɑɫəɡ
dɑɫəɡ
dɑ
dej/dɑɑ
dɑjk
مادر
knɑʧe
düat
düat
düat
det
doar/doχtər
kəʧ
دختر
sjɑw
sja
Sja
sja
sə
se/se
ɍaʃ
سیاه
ʧarma
ʧarməɡ
ʧarməɡ
sefed/ʧarməɡ
ʧarmə
sefi/ʔespe
spi/ʧarmu
سفید
jva
jak
Jak
jak
jak
ja/jek, je
jak
یک (عدد)
jare
se
se
se
se
se/se
se
سه (عدد)
ʧam
ʧaw
ʧaw
ʧam
ʧam
teja/teja
ʧɑw
چشم
har
χar
χar/ kar
χar
χar
χar/χar
kar
خر
lv(w)ɑj/ʃjaj
ʧin
ʧin
ʧɡəɡən
ʧin
ɍatan/ɍata
ʧun/ɍojʃtən
رفتن
java
ʤüa
ʤüa
ʤwa
ʤü
ʤo/ʤo
ʤo
جو
jahar
ʤəɡər
ʤəɡər/ʤarɡ
ʤəɡər/ʤarɡ
ʤeɡar
ʤeɡr/ʤəɡər
ʤɡar/ʤarɡ
جگر
wɑrɹ(d)aj
χwɑdən
χwɑrdən
χwɑrdən
howɑrdən
χardan/harda
χwɑrdən
خوردن
we
χwa
χwad
χwaj
weʤ(ʒ)
χod/χod
χo
خود
v(w)ɑ
wɑ
wɑ
wɑ
vɑ
bɑj/bɑd, bɑj
bɑ
باد
v(w)ɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
wɑrɑn
vɑro
bɑrun/bɑo
bɑrɑn
باران
v(w)arv(w)a
wafər
wafər
wafər
vjar
barf/barf
bafər
برف
wtaj
χaftən
χaftən
χaftən
vətən
χosajan/hofteja
χawtən
خوابیدن
mɑzi
pəʃt
mɑzəɡ
pəʃt
pəʃt
pas/poʃt, kət
pəʃt
پشت (بدن)
v(w)rataj
frutən
fratən
fruʃən
fərutən
ferotan/froχta
froʃtən
فروختن
harmɑna
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr
kɑr/kɑr
kɑr
کار
jɑɡe
ʤe
ʤe
ʤi
ʤɑ
ʤɑ/ʤɑ, lez
ʤeɡa
جا
jɑna
mɑɫ
mɑɫ
mɑɫ/χɑnəɡ
mɑɫ
huna/χowna
mɑɫ
خانه
ʔɑmɑj
hɑtən
hɑtən
hɑtən
hɑtən
ʔumajan/ʔomɑja
hɑtən
آمدن
jɑv(w)ɑj
ɍasin
ɍasin
ɍasin
ɍasin
rasijan/ɍasəsa
ɡaj(i)ʃtən
رسیدن
kjɑnɑj/kjɑs(t)aj
kəl kərdən
kəl kərdən
kəl kərdən
henɑrdən
ferestɑjan/frəsnɑja
nɑrdən
فرستادن
mərɹɑj/mədrɑj
wsɑn
wsɑn
wsɑn
husɑjn
vejsɑjan/ʔisɑja
vesɑn
ایستادن
ma(e)ɍjɑj
ʃkɑnən
ʃkɑnən
ʃəkjɑn
ʃekonən
ʔeʃkasan/ʔeʃkanaja
ʃkɑn
شکستن
karɡa
mɑmər
mɑmər
mərg/mərx/mɑmər
merχ
morq/morʁ
mɑmər/mriʃk
مرغ
dəm
kir
ker
kir/taʒak
kər
kir/kir
ker
آلت تناسلی مرد
wɫa
konɑ
konɑ
konɑ
konɑ
sema/silɑ
kon
سوراخ
lamma
zək
zəɡ
zəɡ
lam
kom/ɡəja
s(z)ək
شکم
tuta
saɡ/ɡamɑɫ
ɡamɑɫ
saɡ/ɡamɑɫ
saɡ
saɡ/sej
saɡ
سگ
daɡɑ
ʔɑwɑji
djaka
djaka
dəhɑt
deh/ʔɑbɑdi
ʔɑwɑi/ɡond
روستا
maj
kɑwəɍ
kɑwəɍ
kɑwəɍ
pas
miʃ/ɡusfa
paz/maɍ
گوسفند
ʧamʧa
ʧəmʧa
qɑʃəq
qɑʃəq
kɑʃeχ
qɑʃoq/qɑʃoq
kawʧək
قاشق
smari
kaj
Ke
ke
keja
ka/kah
kɑ
کاه
pɑɫɑ
kawʃ
kawʃ
kawʃ/piɫɑ
kəɫɑʃ
kafʃ/kawʃ
kawʃ
کفش
ʧani
darzi
darzi
darzen
darzen
sizan/siza
darzi
سوزن
haʃʃa
χərs
χərs
χərs/hərʧ/qərʧ
χers
χers/χərs
wərʧ
خرس
hezi
düaka
düka
dwaka
düna
diɡ/duʃ
dweka
دیروز
pere
dəsu
dəsu
dəsu
dusü
pasabɑ/dosu
dubajɑni
پس فردا
zɑroɫa
mnɑɫ
mnɑɫ
zɑɍu
owjl
baʧa/baʧa
mnɑɫ
بچه
ɡʤi
ʃawi
ʃaw
kərwɑs
kərɑs
ʤuma/pirhan
krɑs
پیراهن
wɑmi
bɑjam
bɑɑm
bɑjam
bɑjm
bɑjom/bɑjm
bɑdɑm
بادام
veʒan
ʤɑʤək
ʤɑʤəɡ
ʤɑʤəɡ
ʤɑʤək
saqez/breʒa
ʤɑʤka/bneʃt
سقز
halʧi
qɑrʧək
qɑrʧək
χarʧəɡ
χɑrʧ
qɑrʧ/qɑrʧ
qɑrʧək
قارچ (خوراکی)
tavani
koʧək
koʧək
sɑn/bard/koʧək
koʧək
bard/bard
bard
سنگ
haɫiza
maʃka
maʃka
kona
maʃka
maʃk/maʃk
maʃka
مشک
ʒaraʒi
kaw
Kaw
kaw
köjɡ
kabk/kabk
kaw
کبک
ʤa
la
la/wa
da/ʒa
e
va/da
la
از (حرف اضافه)
sotaj/soʧnɑj
sozjɑn/ sozɑnən
səzjɑn/ szɑnən
sozjɑn/ suzanən
sotən/ sozonən
sotan, sotan/ soχta, suzənja
sutɑn/ sutɑndən
سوختن/ سوزاندنhttps://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6820_c0f52c6624ae1359e105c8a5d8cd956a.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922On The Pronunciation of Plural Morpheme /-hï/ in PersianOn The Pronunciation of Plural Morpheme /-hï/ in Persian3633896821FABashirJamAssociate Professor of linguistics, Department of English, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran.Journal ArticleThe morpheme /-hA/ is the most productive plural marker in Persian. Besides the formal style, its full form i.e., [hA] is pronounced in two environments in the spoken style; when it is attached to words ending in vowels /e/ and /A/, and when it emphasizes the notion “so many” in few idiosyncratic words. However, its /h/ is deleted when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. In the latter case, /h/ is replaced by an intervocalic glide to resolve hiatus. This research aimed at analyzing various environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ within Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004). Idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met, are analyzed using Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008) and Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001) as OT’s subtheories.
1. Introduction
The morpheme /-hA/ is the most productive plural marker in Persian which can attach to every noun. Its pronunciation is determined by different phonological and semantic factors. Apart from the formal style, its full form i.e., [hA] is pronounced in two environments in the spoken style; when it is attached to words ending in vowels /e/ and /A/, and when it emphasizes the notion “so many” in few idiosyncratic words. However, its /h/ is deleted when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. This research aimed at coming up with answers to the following questions:
1. What constraints and rankings affect the pronunciation of the plural marker /-hA/? 2. How does Optimality Theory analyze idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met?
2. Literature Review
Studies like Sadeghi (1969), Sadeghi & Arjang (1979), Lazard (1992) and Darzi & Ghadiri (2011) have discussed the morphological, syntactic and semantic properties of the plural morpheme /-hA/. However, the present research is the first study to discuss its phonological properties. Although classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) is capable of analyzing various phonological environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of the plural marker /-hA/, it is incapable of analyzing idiosyncrasies in which /h/ deletion fails to apply, even when its conditioning environment is met. According to Gouskova (2012) as exceptions follow a pattern which is inconsistent with the rest of the grammar, OT has difficulty establishing a uniform constraint ranking without additional mechanisms. Pater (2004) claims that an adequate theory of exceptions should be capable of expressing the distinction between regular and exceptional forms as well as between exceptional and ungrammatical forms. Thus, in order to deal with this challenge Pater (2006, 2008) proposes Lexically Specific Constraint Theory. In addition, there are cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is dependent on the interaction between phonology and semantics. Since classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) has no mechanism to analyze phonology-semantics interface, Borsma (2001) proposes Lexical-access Constraints theory. Both Lexically Specific Constraint Theory and Lexical-access Constraints theory are OT’s subtheories.
3. Methodology
This research applies classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) to analyze various phonological environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of plural marker /-hA/. However, idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met, are analyzed using Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008). In addition, the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depends on the interface between phonology and semantics are analyzed using Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001).
4. Results
In the informal style the /h/ in the plural marker deletes in most of the environments, i.e., when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or in one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. Deletion of /h/ results in hiatus which is disallowed in Persian. Therefore, in order to resolve hiatus, intervocalic consonants [j] and [w] are inserted after words ending in /i/ and round vowels /u/ and/o/ respectively. In fact, these intervocalic glides replace /h/ because the sequence of one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/ and a glide which are all articulated in the mouth is easier to produce than the sequence of one of these three vowels and the glottal /h/ which is articulated in the glottis rather than the mouth.
When the plural morpheme /-hA/ is attached to words that end in /Ah/, the deletion of /h/ in the stem bleeds the deletion of /h/ in the plural marker, and vice versa. Because the deletion of both occurrences of /h/ in the stem and in the plural marker results in hiatus which as mentioned earlier is disallowed in Persian. Spencer (1996: 168) calls this situation mutual bleeding.
Apart from the formal style, the full form of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is pronounced when it attaches words ending in /e/ and /A/. In this environment no glide replaces the /h/ in the plural marker because these two vowels and the glides [j] and [w] do not agree in the feature [+high] or in the feature [+round]. Moreover, there is no way other Persian intervocalic consonants replace /h/ as they would make the pronunciation more difficult.
5. Discussion
This research aimed at coming up with answers to the two research questions mentioned earlier.The answer to the first research question is that the following ranking is capable of explaining the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/:
ONSET >> *C.hPL[1] >> AGREE[round] >> AGREE[height] >> MAX, DEP
Furthermore, the full form of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is pronounced when it emphatically expresses the sense of “so many” in some exceptional words. In these words the /h/ in the plural marker fails to delete although the phonological environment is ready for its deletion.
The answer to the second research question is that Optimality Theory applies Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008) to analyze idiosyncratic cases in which /h/ fails to delete, even when its conditioning environment is met. In addition, the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depended on the interface between phonology and semantics were analyzed using Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001). This indicates that OT is the only theory capable of explaining phonology–semantics interface.
6. Conclusion
This research is the first study to discuss the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ in Persian. Moreover, this paper was an attempt to explain idiosyncratic cases in which /h/ fails to delete, even when its conditioning environment is met. These idiosyncrasies included exceptionalities as well as the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depended on the interaction between phonology and semantics.The morpheme /-hA/ is the most productive plural marker in Persian. Besides the formal style, its full form i.e., [hA] is pronounced in two environments in the spoken style; when it is attached to words ending in vowels /e/ and /A/, and when it emphasizes the notion “so many” in few idiosyncratic words. However, its /h/ is deleted when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. In the latter case, /h/ is replaced by an intervocalic glide to resolve hiatus. This research aimed at analyzing various environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ within Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004). Idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met, are analyzed using Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008) and Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001) as OT’s subtheories.
1. Introduction
The morpheme /-hA/ is the most productive plural marker in Persian which can attach to every noun. Its pronunciation is determined by different phonological and semantic factors. Apart from the formal style, its full form i.e., [hA] is pronounced in two environments in the spoken style; when it is attached to words ending in vowels /e/ and /A/, and when it emphasizes the notion “so many” in few idiosyncratic words. However, its /h/ is deleted when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. This research aimed at coming up with answers to the following questions:
1. What constraints and rankings affect the pronunciation of the plural marker /-hA/? 2. How does Optimality Theory analyze idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met?
2. Literature Review
Studies like Sadeghi (1969), Sadeghi & Arjang (1979), Lazard (1992) and Darzi & Ghadiri (2011) have discussed the morphological, syntactic and semantic properties of the plural morpheme /-hA/. However, the present research is the first study to discuss its phonological properties. Although classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) is capable of analyzing various phonological environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of the plural marker /-hA/, it is incapable of analyzing idiosyncrasies in which /h/ deletion fails to apply, even when its conditioning environment is met. According to Gouskova (2012) as exceptions follow a pattern which is inconsistent with the rest of the grammar, OT has difficulty establishing a uniform constraint ranking without additional mechanisms. Pater (2004) claims that an adequate theory of exceptions should be capable of expressing the distinction between regular and exceptional forms as well as between exceptional and ungrammatical forms. Thus, in order to deal with this challenge Pater (2006, 2008) proposes Lexically Specific Constraint Theory. In addition, there are cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is dependent on the interaction between phonology and semantics. Since classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) has no mechanism to analyze phonology-semantics interface, Borsma (2001) proposes Lexical-access Constraints theory. Both Lexically Specific Constraint Theory and Lexical-access Constraints theory are OT’s subtheories.
3. Methodology
This research applies classic Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004) to analyze various phonological environments and phonological processes which affect the pronunciation of plural marker /-hA/. However, idiosyncrasies which fail /h/ deletion, even when its conditioning environment is met, are analyzed using Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008). In addition, the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depends on the interface between phonology and semantics are analyzed using Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001).
4. Results
In the informal style the /h/ in the plural marker deletes in most of the environments, i.e., when it is attached to words ending in a consonant or in one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/. Deletion of /h/ results in hiatus which is disallowed in Persian. Therefore, in order to resolve hiatus, intervocalic consonants [j] and [w] are inserted after words ending in /i/ and round vowels /u/ and/o/ respectively. In fact, these intervocalic glides replace /h/ because the sequence of one of the three vowels /i/, /u/ and /o/ and a glide which are all articulated in the mouth is easier to produce than the sequence of one of these three vowels and the glottal /h/ which is articulated in the glottis rather than the mouth.
When the plural morpheme /-hA/ is attached to words that end in /Ah/, the deletion of /h/ in the stem bleeds the deletion of /h/ in the plural marker, and vice versa. Because the deletion of both occurrences of /h/ in the stem and in the plural marker results in hiatus which as mentioned earlier is disallowed in Persian. Spencer (1996: 168) calls this situation mutual bleeding.
Apart from the formal style, the full form of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is pronounced when it attaches words ending in /e/ and /A/. In this environment no glide replaces the /h/ in the plural marker because these two vowels and the glides [j] and [w] do not agree in the feature [+high] or in the feature [+round]. Moreover, there is no way other Persian intervocalic consonants replace /h/ as they would make the pronunciation more difficult.
5. Discussion
This research aimed at coming up with answers to the two research questions mentioned earlier.The answer to the first research question is that the following ranking is capable of explaining the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/:
ONSET >> *C.hPL[1] >> AGREE[round] >> AGREE[height] >> MAX, DEP
Furthermore, the full form of the plural morpheme /-hA/ is pronounced when it emphatically expresses the sense of “so many” in some exceptional words. In these words the /h/ in the plural marker fails to delete although the phonological environment is ready for its deletion.
The answer to the second research question is that Optimality Theory applies Lexically Specific Constraint theory (Pater, 2006, 2008) to analyze idiosyncratic cases in which /h/ fails to delete, even when its conditioning environment is met. In addition, the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depended on the interface between phonology and semantics were analyzed using Lexical-access Constraints theory (Borsma, 2001). This indicates that OT is the only theory capable of explaining phonology–semantics interface.
6. Conclusion
This research is the first study to discuss the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ in Persian. Moreover, this paper was an attempt to explain idiosyncratic cases in which /h/ fails to delete, even when its conditioning environment is met. These idiosyncrasies included exceptionalities as well as the cases in which the pronunciation of the plural morpheme /-hA/ depended on the interaction between phonology and semantics.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6821_ba0a4d6ecea3e9e126dd3b6d77291c97.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Verbal Strategies in Interrogation Interaction (An Investigation in Legal Discourse)Verbal Strategies in Interrogation Interaction (An Investigation in Legal Discourse)3914186822FAParisaNajafiPhD Candidate in General Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, IranFaridehHaghbinAssociate Professor of Linguistics, Alzahra University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleDuring the interrogation process and its discourse language contains certain characteristics that can be the source of many linguistic researches and studies. One of the most important issues that can be mentioned in the interrogation process is how to evolve the verbal communication by the interrogator in order to obtain the truth of the interrogee’s statements. In this regard, the interrogator uses strategies to advance the discourse in his/her own way. In analyzing the data, the participants in the interrogation interaction were divided into two groups of specialist and non-specialist. The first category are the people who are familiar with the law and the legal language and include the police, judge, lawyer, etc. On the other hand, the second group are people who are not familiar with the law (or at least have little familiarity), including the accused, the plaintiff. In the present essay, based on the corpus of ten litigation files and based on the analysis of the verbal interaction between the expert (judge) and the non-expert (the accused, the plaintiff), we attempted to extract the various strategies used by the interrogator. The strategies include question formulation, use of repeated questions, quotation clauses, contrast,the use of the phrase "khob" as a discourse maker and interruption.
1. Introduction
In a simple definition forensic linguistics is an attempt to explore the way relationships between people in legal contexts are constructed through language. What we are dealing with in forensic linguistics in general is the analysis of legal writing or legal talk. The present study focuses on legal talk in interrogation, specifically questioning in trial. In the present study we examined the interrogation process, which includes the strategies that the interrogator uses during the interrogation process to obtain answers to his questions and to discover the truth. Based on the issues raised, the present study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What strategies does the interrogator use to obtain the truth in the interrogation process?
2. What is the formal and pragmatic representation of the questions during the interrogation process?
2. Literature Review
Holt and Johnson (2010) study the socio-pragmatic aspects of legal talk: police interviews and trial discourse. They believe that reporting, contrasting, formulating and repeating are at the heart of the process of formulating the facts of the legal story in trials and police interviews. Their use produces important fact-making moments that distil and encode a version of reality, which play an important part in the legal case: an authorized-authoritative version.
Momeni (2012) show how linguistic analysis can help to identify language crime especially when there are no clear available proofs or documents. As she points out language crime is accompanied with speech acts like lying, threatening bribery. After observing numerous cases in courts and police stations (Bureau of Police Investigation), the author chose data which included “lies” and analyzed it in two ways. First, “defendants’ statements” and second “power relation” are analyzed. The author draws this conclusion that linguistics strategies like semantic tools (schema, frame, verb meaning), syntactic tools (mood of verb), discoursal tools (power relation) … can be effective to identify and analyze language crimes. Perjury/lie is considered as a crime in both courts and Bureau of Police Investigation. Analyzing all language crimes in one article is not possible; therefore, the author analyzes just one which is perjury/lie.
Momeni and Azizi (2015) study the role of topic shift and violence of Grice Principles in interrogation. They show the role of changing the subject and violation of Grice cooperative principles in interrogations. That is, the accused seeks to prolong the duration of the investigation or provide incomplete information to the interrogator officer which consistently violates these strategies. On the other hand, the legal context and power relations do not allow the accused to change the subject according to his own desire or give irrelevant answers constantly. If this happens, it can be concluded that the accused tried to mislead the interrogator in linguistic terms. This research is a fieldwork study. After tens of observations of interrogations recorded in Tehran Police Bureau, the real samples were selected, classified and studied. The authors introduce these principles and demonstrate their use in interrogations.
Razavian and Jalil,(2018) study the “spoken features of the robbery defendants in court”. They try to obtain spoken features of robbery defendants in order to provide a unique conversation of thieves in detection of crimes. The authors are trying to describe and explain speech of robbery defendants in Semnan province judicial system from the perspective of Forensic Linguistics. The results show that the robbery defendants by using many linguistic principles such as high modality, activism deletion, infelicitous utterance, illocutionary act try to gain interrogators confidence. Investigation of lawsuits details show that robbery defendants in their defenses use linguistic principles differently. In particular, they use in their speech modality for 29%, contradictions for 16%, activism deletion for 14%, presupposition for 10%, speech acts for 3%, implicature for 1% and middle voice construction for 0/5%. Results suggest that attention to features and elegances of language like low modality, contradiction in speech, activism deletion, presupposition, implicature; middle voice construction and Gricean Cooperative Principles can help investigators and judges at crime detection. The other researches that concerns language in legal discourse in Iran are as follows: Rowshan & Behboudi (2009), Momeni (2011), Momeni & Azizi (2011).
3. Methodology
This research is a fieldwork study. The present study is based on a speech record of a total of 189 minutes of conversation recording of the interrogation process of ten cases in two branches of the Shiraz Public Prosecutor's Office. After tens of observations of interrogations recorded, the real samples were selected, classified and studied.
4. Results and Discussion
By analyzing the data we found that the interrogator uses specific and repetitive strategies, and this pattern is present in all cases. Accordingly, we extract and categorize the strategies which include question formulation, use of repeated questions, quotation clauses, contrast, the use of the phrase "khob" as a discourse maker marker and interruption. The results show that all four strategies proposed in the views of Holt and Johnson (2010) included the formulation, repetition of the question, quotation, and contrast palys central role in the interrogation discourse. Also, the authors have found three strategies: "khob" as a discourse maker marker, interruption, and the second type of question repetition to these strategies.
6. Conclusion
While the formal approaches to the study of language pay attention to the formal aspects of language, the functional-oriented theories focus on language use as a means of communication and its application in different contexts. In the present article, an attempt was made to study another practical aspect of language in the (specifically) judicial and legal context. To achieve this, the authors chose the interrogation process in the prosecutor's office and explored the strategies used in the interrogation process by the expert (interrogator) and non-expert (defendant, plaintiff, etc.). One of the main strategies in this process is “the questions” both in formal and pragmatic aspects. Based on the body of the interrogation process of ten cases in two branches of the Public Prosecutor's Office, the authors evaluated the questions raised by the judge and concluded that all four strategies proposed in the views of Holt and Johnson (2010) are used by interrogator. They are question formulation, repeated questions, quotation clauses and contrast, and also, the authors have added three strategies of "khob" as a discourse maker marker, interruption. It should be noted that the discourse of interrogation has many different dimensions and aspects, both in terms of form and function, which requires deeper and broader research in the field of justice.During the interrogation process and its discourse language contains certain characteristics that can be the source of many linguistic researches and studies. One of the most important issues that can be mentioned in the interrogation process is how to evolve the verbal communication by the interrogator in order to obtain the truth of the interrogee’s statements. In this regard, the interrogator uses strategies to advance the discourse in his/her own way. In analyzing the data, the participants in the interrogation interaction were divided into two groups of specialist and non-specialist. The first category are the people who are familiar with the law and the legal language and include the police, judge, lawyer, etc. On the other hand, the second group are people who are not familiar with the law (or at least have little familiarity), including the accused, the plaintiff. In the present essay, based on the corpus of ten litigation files and based on the analysis of the verbal interaction between the expert (judge) and the non-expert (the accused, the plaintiff), we attempted to extract the various strategies used by the interrogator. The strategies include question formulation, use of repeated questions, quotation clauses, contrast,the use of the phrase "khob" as a discourse maker and interruption.
1. Introduction
In a simple definition forensic linguistics is an attempt to explore the way relationships between people in legal contexts are constructed through language. What we are dealing with in forensic linguistics in general is the analysis of legal writing or legal talk. The present study focuses on legal talk in interrogation, specifically questioning in trial. In the present study we examined the interrogation process, which includes the strategies that the interrogator uses during the interrogation process to obtain answers to his questions and to discover the truth. Based on the issues raised, the present study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What strategies does the interrogator use to obtain the truth in the interrogation process?
2. What is the formal and pragmatic representation of the questions during the interrogation process?
2. Literature Review
Holt and Johnson (2010) study the socio-pragmatic aspects of legal talk: police interviews and trial discourse. They believe that reporting, contrasting, formulating and repeating are at the heart of the process of formulating the facts of the legal story in trials and police interviews. Their use produces important fact-making moments that distil and encode a version of reality, which play an important part in the legal case: an authorized-authoritative version.
Momeni (2012) show how linguistic analysis can help to identify language crime especially when there are no clear available proofs or documents. As she points out language crime is accompanied with speech acts like lying, threatening bribery. After observing numerous cases in courts and police stations (Bureau of Police Investigation), the author chose data which included “lies” and analyzed it in two ways. First, “defendants’ statements” and second “power relation” are analyzed. The author draws this conclusion that linguistics strategies like semantic tools (schema, frame, verb meaning), syntactic tools (mood of verb), discoursal tools (power relation) … can be effective to identify and analyze language crimes. Perjury/lie is considered as a crime in both courts and Bureau of Police Investigation. Analyzing all language crimes in one article is not possible; therefore, the author analyzes just one which is perjury/lie.
Momeni and Azizi (2015) study the role of topic shift and violence of Grice Principles in interrogation. They show the role of changing the subject and violation of Grice cooperative principles in interrogations. That is, the accused seeks to prolong the duration of the investigation or provide incomplete information to the interrogator officer which consistently violates these strategies. On the other hand, the legal context and power relations do not allow the accused to change the subject according to his own desire or give irrelevant answers constantly. If this happens, it can be concluded that the accused tried to mislead the interrogator in linguistic terms. This research is a fieldwork study. After tens of observations of interrogations recorded in Tehran Police Bureau, the real samples were selected, classified and studied. The authors introduce these principles and demonstrate their use in interrogations.
Razavian and Jalil,(2018) study the “spoken features of the robbery defendants in court”. They try to obtain spoken features of robbery defendants in order to provide a unique conversation of thieves in detection of crimes. The authors are trying to describe and explain speech of robbery defendants in Semnan province judicial system from the perspective of Forensic Linguistics. The results show that the robbery defendants by using many linguistic principles such as high modality, activism deletion, infelicitous utterance, illocutionary act try to gain interrogators confidence. Investigation of lawsuits details show that robbery defendants in their defenses use linguistic principles differently. In particular, they use in their speech modality for 29%, contradictions for 16%, activism deletion for 14%, presupposition for 10%, speech acts for 3%, implicature for 1% and middle voice construction for 0/5%. Results suggest that attention to features and elegances of language like low modality, contradiction in speech, activism deletion, presupposition, implicature; middle voice construction and Gricean Cooperative Principles can help investigators and judges at crime detection. The other researches that concerns language in legal discourse in Iran are as follows: Rowshan & Behboudi (2009), Momeni (2011), Momeni & Azizi (2011).
3. Methodology
This research is a fieldwork study. The present study is based on a speech record of a total of 189 minutes of conversation recording of the interrogation process of ten cases in two branches of the Shiraz Public Prosecutor's Office. After tens of observations of interrogations recorded, the real samples were selected, classified and studied.
4. Results and Discussion
By analyzing the data we found that the interrogator uses specific and repetitive strategies, and this pattern is present in all cases. Accordingly, we extract and categorize the strategies which include question formulation, use of repeated questions, quotation clauses, contrast, the use of the phrase "khob" as a discourse maker marker and interruption. The results show that all four strategies proposed in the views of Holt and Johnson (2010) included the formulation, repetition of the question, quotation, and contrast palys central role in the interrogation discourse. Also, the authors have found three strategies: "khob" as a discourse maker marker, interruption, and the second type of question repetition to these strategies.
6. Conclusion
While the formal approaches to the study of language pay attention to the formal aspects of language, the functional-oriented theories focus on language use as a means of communication and its application in different contexts. In the present article, an attempt was made to study another practical aspect of language in the (specifically) judicial and legal context. To achieve this, the authors chose the interrogation process in the prosecutor's office and explored the strategies used in the interrogation process by the expert (interrogator) and non-expert (defendant, plaintiff, etc.). One of the main strategies in this process is “the questions” both in formal and pragmatic aspects. Based on the body of the interrogation process of ten cases in two branches of the Public Prosecutor's Office, the authors evaluated the questions raised by the judge and concluded that all four strategies proposed in the views of Holt and Johnson (2010) are used by interrogator. They are question formulation, repeated questions, quotation clauses and contrast, and also, the authors have added three strategies of "khob" as a discourse maker marker, interruption. It should be noted that the discourse of interrogation has many different dimensions and aspects, both in terms of form and function, which requires deeper and broader research in the field of justice.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6822_e6be4c22a5963ab00dfe8f3b695b5332.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Investigating of some effecting factors on Agreement System in Ilami KurdishInvestigating of some effecting factors on Agreement System in Ilami Kurdish4194436823FAZahraSharafkhaniPh.D Department of Linguistic, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, IranHabibGowhariPhD. department of Linguitics, Ilam branch, Islamic Azad University,Ilam,IranAkbarAzizifarPh.D Deparment of English Language, School of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, IranJournal ArticleDifferent languages make use of various linguistic tools to encode grammatical roles (GRs). ‘Case- marking’ and ‘word-order’ are among the main tools to be used to code GRs. Furthermore, ‘agreement’ is another prominent tool to be used more or less in world languages to represent GRs. Based on their typologies and morpho-syntactic properties, world languages may select one or a combination of these tools to encode grammatical roles. In the languages with poor morphology, ‘word-order’ plays a more basic role and in those languages with enriched case system, ‘case-marking’ and ‘agreement’ are more frequently employed to encode grammatical roles. On the other hand, there are various factors which may have repercussions for grammar of languages including its agreement system. The factors which are assumed to affect object agreement in this study are transitivity, (in) definiteness, being (non)referential, (non)topicality, incorporation and semantic roles of object. These factors are adopted mainly from Givon (2004) and other related studies after careful examination of related literature in the world languages. Accordingly, the present study aims at investigating object agreement of Ilami Kurdish and the above-mentioned factors which may affect agreement between pronominal enclitics and objects. To achieve these goals, a descriptive- analytic approach was adopted to deal with the collected data. The data were taken from the native speakers via interviewing and using targeted questions. To collect authentic data, 10 native speakers of Ilami Kurdish with age range of 40-60 were frequently referred to in order to check the results. Furthermore, the researchers’ linguistic intuition as native speakers of Kurdish assists them as reliable source of data.
The results indicated that object pronominal enclitic can appear both at the presence and absence of direct object. In the presence of direct object, object pronominal enclitic is optional, while in the absence of direct object, object pronominal enclitics are obligatory. Accordingly, the use of object enclitics in Ilami Kurdish is an optional tool to refer (represent) to direct object. Therefore, it is concluded that object agreement to encode direct object is only used partially in Ilami Kurdish. The results, also, indicated that object enclitics are employed in Ilami Kurdish as a means to refer to object in terms of number and person. Furthermore, the results revealed that the agreement between object pronominal enclitics and direct object is affected by the above factors including '(in)definiteness', being (non)referential', '(non)topicality', 'incorporation'. Therefore, it can be concluded that felicitous object-marking in Ilami Kurdish is conditioned to these factors. For an object pronominal enclitic to be used appropriately, the referred direct object must be definite, referential, topical and non-incorporated. It is recommended to carry out separate studies on (non)Iranian languages, especially the languages with split ergative morphology, to investigate the influence of the above-mentioned factors on their agreement systems.Different languages make use of various linguistic tools to encode grammatical roles (GRs). ‘Case- marking’ and ‘word-order’ are among the main tools to be used to code GRs. Furthermore, ‘agreement’ is another prominent tool to be used more or less in world languages to represent GRs. Based on their typologies and morpho-syntactic properties, world languages may select one or a combination of these tools to encode grammatical roles. In the languages with poor morphology, ‘word-order’ plays a more basic role and in those languages with enriched case system, ‘case-marking’ and ‘agreement’ are more frequently employed to encode grammatical roles. On the other hand, there are various factors which may have repercussions for grammar of languages including its agreement system. The factors which are assumed to affect object agreement in this study are transitivity, (in) definiteness, being (non)referential, (non)topicality, incorporation and semantic roles of object. These factors are adopted mainly from Givon (2004) and other related studies after careful examination of related literature in the world languages. Accordingly, the present study aims at investigating object agreement of Ilami Kurdish and the above-mentioned factors which may affect agreement between pronominal enclitics and objects. To achieve these goals, a descriptive- analytic approach was adopted to deal with the collected data. The data were taken from the native speakers via interviewing and using targeted questions. To collect authentic data, 10 native speakers of Ilami Kurdish with age range of 40-60 were frequently referred to in order to check the results. Furthermore, the researchers’ linguistic intuition as native speakers of Kurdish assists them as reliable source of data.
The results indicated that object pronominal enclitic can appear both at the presence and absence of direct object. In the presence of direct object, object pronominal enclitic is optional, while in the absence of direct object, object pronominal enclitics are obligatory. Accordingly, the use of object enclitics in Ilami Kurdish is an optional tool to refer (represent) to direct object. Therefore, it is concluded that object agreement to encode direct object is only used partially in Ilami Kurdish. The results, also, indicated that object enclitics are employed in Ilami Kurdish as a means to refer to object in terms of number and person. Furthermore, the results revealed that the agreement between object pronominal enclitics and direct object is affected by the above factors including '(in)definiteness', being (non)referential', '(non)topicality', 'incorporation'. Therefore, it can be concluded that felicitous object-marking in Ilami Kurdish is conditioned to these factors. For an object pronominal enclitic to be used appropriately, the referred direct object must be definite, referential, topical and non-incorporated. It is recommended to carry out separate studies on (non)Iranian languages, especially the languages with split ergative morphology, to investigate the influence of the above-mentioned factors on their agreement systems.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6823_06358599b7afb2506e063c1ea0a09fbd.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Representation of Enemy in the Memoirs of a Woman in Captivity: A Case Study of the Book
I Am AliveThe Representation of Enemy in the Memoirs of a Woman in Captivity: A Case Study of the Book
I Am Alive4454756824FAArezouSoleimaniPh.D. Candidate in Linguistics, Alzahra University, Tehran, IranFarhadSasaniAssociate Professor, Department of Linguistics, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.AhmadPakatchiAssociate Professor, Department of Quranic Sciences and Tradition, Imam Sadiq University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleThis research is an attempt to represent the enemy in a woman's self-portrait memoirs about Iraq’s war against Iran. Years after, those who were involved in the war have an image of an enemy which is different from the mental and cultural boundaries of those who didn’t experience war. Besides, the point of view of a woman gives a different image of the enemy. Therefore, to depict the representation of this enemy, the book "I Am Alive" by "Masoumeh Abad" was selected. This book is written directly by the person who was engaged in war and the text is not influenced by any possible chronologist or diarist helping writing the text; hence, it is considered a direct and firsthand text. By applying Lotman’s cultural semiotic theory, Echo’s theory of inventing enemy and the semiotic square of Greimas the text was analyzed. Study of the text showed that polarization, delineation and making an ideological enemy has been used to represent the enemy. The form of the enemy and the amount of hostility in this text are not fixed. The writer allocates different degrees of hostility to enemies, and we see a continuum of enemy. In some cases, as circumstances require, such as the perceived danger or helplessness, enemy is considered an insider.
1. Introduction
The Iraq-Iran’s war is the longest conventional war of the twentieth century, beginning with Iraq's invasion of Iran and lasting eight years. In the Pahlavi era, governments differed greatly over borders and water resources, and relations were very strained. With the conclusion of the, however, after the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Saddam Hussein, who was at the head of the ruling Ba'ath party, unilaterally terminated the 1975 Algiers agreement and launched a large-scale attack against Iran on September 22, 1980. It was a war between two neighboring countries in which the people of both lands shared religious affiliations. For this reason, the effects of this war on the lives of the people were profound and unforgettable, especially ideologically it was unbelievable for them to deal with an enemy of the same religion was unbelievable to them.
Decades after the war, those involved in the war still have an image of the enemy that differs from the mental and cultural boundaries of those who have not experienced war. On the other hand, the way a woman conceptualizes the enemy gives a different picture of it. So, we aim to answer these questions, how enemy is formed from a woman's point of view? What mechanisms are used to represent the enemy? And does the enemy have a fixed meaning?
2. Literature Review
War memoir is one of the most common methods of recording events, both during and after the war. For this reason, many works related to the Iraq-Iran war have been written in the form of memoirs. In this regard, Kazemi (2015), Salimi-Nejad (2014), Faizi Sho’ar (2014), Mo’men Abadi (2014), Gholam Hosseinzadeh (2013), Tadi Bani (2011), Qaisari (2011), Ilkhan (1388) and Irvani (1386) in their master’s theses have studied some memories about Iraq-Iran’s war. Sasani (2005, 2008) has also collected and translated a collection of articles related to war as a socio-cultural phenomenon from various foreign authors. Numerous studies have been done in connection with the theory of cultural semiotics, including Lotman (1990, 1984), Posner (2004), Echo (2012), Sonesson (2000, 2001, 2004) and Pakatachi (2004). )
3. Methodology
This is a descriptive-analysis case study research. In order to answer the questions of this research, data were collected from first hand documents about war. The first hand document is a written piece which is written by the same person who was involved in the events of the memoirs directly and is not affected by the thoughts and opinions of those who write else’s memoirs. Also the gender and locality variables were considered. Therefore the book I am alive by Masoumeh Abad was selected. The author, Masoumeh Abad, is a young lady from Abadan and a native of the war zone. She was a captive for four years in Iraqi camps and has written a book about the memoirs of her captivity. In this study, Lotman semiosphere model, Eco inventing enemy theory, and Greimas semiotic-square model have been used to examine the data.
4. Results
The concept of "other" has always played an fundamental role in one’s identity recognition. Whether it is a living thing or an object or a natural force. If someone feels any threat or danger from this "other", immediately recognizes him as an enemy and attributes the maximum of malice and hostility to him. In this way, the person gets the maximum distance from the "other" and is prepared to face the possible danger from the enemy. By applying semiotic tools and echo theory, we found that the author of book I am Alive uses polarization and imagery processes to describe the enemy. She creates an ideological enemy for herself and the audience, which has the highest level of malice, and by using inter textual references to the events of the beginning of Islam, especially the Ashura incident, places the enemy in the lowest possible ideological position. The image of this enemy is completely black and has a polar nature. On the other hand, we see that the enemy in this work is not only formulated on the basis of dualism and polar binaries, but is seen as a continuous conceptual entity. Some characters have less enmity and hostility than others. . Sometimes the author raises the farthest enemies to the nearest insiders as needed to avoid potential danger The feature of continuity in representing enemy was explained via presented model which was inspired by Greimas semiotic-square
Figure 3
Continuum of the concept of the enemy
As you can see the concept of enemy can glide from the left side of axis to the right side and get close to the concept of friend. Vice versa a friend can move to the left, lose its features of being a friend and become an enemy
6. Conclusion
It can be said that the concept of enemy is a floating, unstable and graded concept. The word enemy is an empty container in which anyone or anything with different grades can be placed in different situations.This research is an attempt to represent the enemy in a woman's self-portrait memoirs about Iraq’s war against Iran. Years after, those who were involved in the war have an image of an enemy which is different from the mental and cultural boundaries of those who didn’t experience war. Besides, the point of view of a woman gives a different image of the enemy. Therefore, to depict the representation of this enemy, the book "I Am Alive" by "Masoumeh Abad" was selected. This book is written directly by the person who was engaged in war and the text is not influenced by any possible chronologist or diarist helping writing the text; hence, it is considered a direct and firsthand text. By applying Lotman’s cultural semiotic theory, Echo’s theory of inventing enemy and the semiotic square of Greimas the text was analyzed. Study of the text showed that polarization, delineation and making an ideological enemy has been used to represent the enemy. The form of the enemy and the amount of hostility in this text are not fixed. The writer allocates different degrees of hostility to enemies, and we see a continuum of enemy. In some cases, as circumstances require, such as the perceived danger or helplessness, enemy is considered an insider.
1. Introduction
The Iraq-Iran’s war is the longest conventional war of the twentieth century, beginning with Iraq's invasion of Iran and lasting eight years. In the Pahlavi era, governments differed greatly over borders and water resources, and relations were very strained. With the conclusion of the, however, after the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Saddam Hussein, who was at the head of the ruling Ba'ath party, unilaterally terminated the 1975 Algiers agreement and launched a large-scale attack against Iran on September 22, 1980. It was a war between two neighboring countries in which the people of both lands shared religious affiliations. For this reason, the effects of this war on the lives of the people were profound and unforgettable, especially ideologically it was unbelievable for them to deal with an enemy of the same religion was unbelievable to them.
Decades after the war, those involved in the war still have an image of the enemy that differs from the mental and cultural boundaries of those who have not experienced war. On the other hand, the way a woman conceptualizes the enemy gives a different picture of it. So, we aim to answer these questions, how enemy is formed from a woman's point of view? What mechanisms are used to represent the enemy? And does the enemy have a fixed meaning?
2. Literature Review
War memoir is one of the most common methods of recording events, both during and after the war. For this reason, many works related to the Iraq-Iran war have been written in the form of memoirs. In this regard, Kazemi (2015), Salimi-Nejad (2014), Faizi Sho’ar (2014), Mo’men Abadi (2014), Gholam Hosseinzadeh (2013), Tadi Bani (2011), Qaisari (2011), Ilkhan (1388) and Irvani (1386) in their master’s theses have studied some memories about Iraq-Iran’s war. Sasani (2005, 2008) has also collected and translated a collection of articles related to war as a socio-cultural phenomenon from various foreign authors. Numerous studies have been done in connection with the theory of cultural semiotics, including Lotman (1990, 1984), Posner (2004), Echo (2012), Sonesson (2000, 2001, 2004) and Pakatachi (2004). )
3. Methodology
This is a descriptive-analysis case study research. In order to answer the questions of this research, data were collected from first hand documents about war. The first hand document is a written piece which is written by the same person who was involved in the events of the memoirs directly and is not affected by the thoughts and opinions of those who write else’s memoirs. Also the gender and locality variables were considered. Therefore the book I am alive by Masoumeh Abad was selected. The author, Masoumeh Abad, is a young lady from Abadan and a native of the war zone. She was a captive for four years in Iraqi camps and has written a book about the memoirs of her captivity. In this study, Lotman semiosphere model, Eco inventing enemy theory, and Greimas semiotic-square model have been used to examine the data.
4. Results
The concept of "other" has always played an fundamental role in one’s identity recognition. Whether it is a living thing or an object or a natural force. If someone feels any threat or danger from this "other", immediately recognizes him as an enemy and attributes the maximum of malice and hostility to him. In this way, the person gets the maximum distance from the "other" and is prepared to face the possible danger from the enemy. By applying semiotic tools and echo theory, we found that the author of book I am Alive uses polarization and imagery processes to describe the enemy. She creates an ideological enemy for herself and the audience, which has the highest level of malice, and by using inter textual references to the events of the beginning of Islam, especially the Ashura incident, places the enemy in the lowest possible ideological position. The image of this enemy is completely black and has a polar nature. On the other hand, we see that the enemy in this work is not only formulated on the basis of dualism and polar binaries, but is seen as a continuous conceptual entity. Some characters have less enmity and hostility than others. . Sometimes the author raises the farthest enemies to the nearest insiders as needed to avoid potential danger The feature of continuity in representing enemy was explained via presented model which was inspired by Greimas semiotic-square
Figure 3
Continuum of the concept of the enemy
As you can see the concept of enemy can glide from the left side of axis to the right side and get close to the concept of friend. Vice versa a friend can move to the left, lose its features of being a friend and become an enemy
6. Conclusion
It can be said that the concept of enemy is a floating, unstable and graded concept. The word enemy is an empty container in which anyone or anything with different grades can be placed in different situations.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6824_de58bfe3d33dada41a9398c30e21eeed.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Pragmatics of Questions in Persian Academic TextsPragmatics of Questions in Persian Academic Texts4775086825FAAli RezaGholi FamianAssociate Professor, Department of General Linguistics and Foreign Languages, Payame Noor University, IranJournal ArticleKnowledge is based on questions, and in every scientific text, a writer is supposed to answer one or some definite question(s). Linguistically speaking, interrogative structure is one of the most important grammatical structures in all languages, and although their grammatical, phonological as well as semantic features are examined in detail, their pragmatic functions have been mainly neglected. For the first time, Hyland (2002) investigated interrogative structure with a pragmatic approach and introduced it as an engagement device to attract readers. In fact, interrogatives along with imperatives, reader pronouns, shared knowledge and appositives constitute five engagement devices in writer-reader interaction. In this model, seven pragmatic functions are outlined for interrogatives: (1) Questions as titles, (2) frame purpose, (3) text organization, (4) establish niche, (5) express evaluation, (6) support claim, and (7) suggest research. The present study examines the pragmatic functions of interrogative in Persian language with the emphasis on academic texts. Three sub-genres, i.e. textbooks, research articles and research reports are taken into account. Due to the different mechanisms practiced in different sciences, the so-called hard-soft divide which distinguishes natural sciences versus humanities is also revisited. The study addresses the following four questions:
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives among textbooks, research articles and research reports?
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives between humanities and sciences?
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives among different fields ?
Is there any difference between Persian and English language to handle the pragmatic functions of interrogatives ?
This research follows a descriptive-analytical procedure. The statistical population includes undergraduate level scientific textbooks, research articles as well as research reports. Needless to say, all of these sub-genres are written by university professors but each sub-genre addresses especial audience. The sample is collected from the afore-mentioned texts in six humanities fields (Persian literature, linguistics, law, psychology, social sciences, and accounting), and six sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology and computer science).
In each academic field, 6 textbooks, 30 research articles and 4 research reports are selected. Considering 12 fields the corpus of study includes 72 textbooks, 360articles and 48 research reports. The books are original Persian manuscripts (not translated books), articles are selected from two or three peer-referred academic journal, and reports are also written by faculty members in Payam-e Noor University in East Azerbaijan. Since the frequency of interrogatives is counted in 10000 words scale, first the number of words in each text is counted. The sub-genre of textbooks includes 2948020 word (about 3 millions), and articles and research reports have 2112669 (about 2 millions) and 696205 (about 700,000) words respectively. As, such, the whole corpus includes 5756894 (about 5 million and 700,000) words.
With an eye to the seven pragmatic functions outlined by Hyland (2002), it should be mentioned that in only two texts (two research articles) interrogative structure is employed as the text title. The model’s second function, i.e. frame purpose is the most frequent pattern, as from the 1234 detected interrogatives in the whole corpus, 835 ones (about 70 percent) imply this pragmatic function. Therefore, it can be claimed that in these three genres, writers prefer to present questions in the beginning of their texts and then attempt to provide answers to them. The frequency in the text organization (81) and establish niche (63) is not significant, and the low number of cases in fifth function, i.e. express evaluation shows that the involved writers did not take any critical positions. The frequency of sixth and seventh functions are higher. In sum, for 10000 words of the corpus 2.1 interrogative structure is employed by the writers.
With respect to the science-humanities divide, it is revealed that the frequency of interrogatives in the humanities (3.1 cases in 10000 words) is much higher than that of sciences (0.9 cases in 10000).
In only two fields, i.e. linguistics and psychology all seven discourse functions are used, and in most disciplines- especially in sciences- most discourse functions have not been employed by the authors. One noticeable exception to this general pattern is physics, as using interrogatives in this field is apparently more popular than in law and accounting.
To answer the first question of the study, it should be maintained that writers of the three genres under study behave differently as the number of interrogatives in the textbooks is higher than that of research articles and research reports. Articles and reports have quite the same number of interrogatives. To explain the difference, it is maintained that textbooks are mainly prepared for undergraduate students. Student are usually fresh in the subject, and therefore writers are supposed to write explicitly. One method to reach explicitness is to design some questions and then try to answer them. In contrast, articles and research reports are substantially written for peers. The writers, in these cases, believe that the potential readers are academic agents and therefore using engagement devices like interrogatives would be unnecessary.
With respect to the second research question, it is shown that humanities and sciences behave quite differently as far as using interrogatives is concerned. This finding supports the claims made by Snow (1959,1998) and Tauber (2009) who have recognized substantial differences between humanities and sciences, leading to the long-standing debate as humanities-science divide.
Regarding the third question, it should be acknowledged that among the very disciplines in both humanities and sciences, writers do not have similar tendency towards using interrogatives. Linguistics and literature-with a little difference- occupy the first and second positions followed by psychology. As stated earlier, in the corpus of sciences, the frequency of interrogatives is lower, although the field of physics is an exception.
To compare the findings of the present study with those of Hyland (2002), it is shown that the frequency reported by Hyland is much higher (7.2 cases in 10000 words) than that of Persian corpus (2.1 cases in 10000 words). It can be concluded that writers in Hong Kong university are eager to use interrogatives structure to attract their readers. To explain the difference, we have to address the subject of writing in two different educational contexts. The students and researchers in Hong Kong are familiar with the basics of the writing in general and academic writing in particular, while their counterparts in Iran lack such competence. To interpret this general tendency it is maintained that in humanities, especially in fields such as linguistics and literature, writers are more familiar with linguistic structures. They are technically more language-aware and therefore act more competently. In contrast, scientists are more rigid in their language, and actually they are taught and recommended to use inflexible, non-humanistic language. Needless to say, an advanced, rigid tone in the text does not require any engagement with the reader.Knowledge is based on questions, and in every scientific text, a writer is supposed to answer one or some definite question(s). Linguistically speaking, interrogative structure is one of the most important grammatical structures in all languages, and although their grammatical, phonological as well as semantic features are examined in detail, their pragmatic functions have been mainly neglected. For the first time, Hyland (2002) investigated interrogative structure with a pragmatic approach and introduced it as an engagement device to attract readers. In fact, interrogatives along with imperatives, reader pronouns, shared knowledge and appositives constitute five engagement devices in writer-reader interaction. In this model, seven pragmatic functions are outlined for interrogatives: (1) Questions as titles, (2) frame purpose, (3) text organization, (4) establish niche, (5) express evaluation, (6) support claim, and (7) suggest research. The present study examines the pragmatic functions of interrogative in Persian language with the emphasis on academic texts. Three sub-genres, i.e. textbooks, research articles and research reports are taken into account. Due to the different mechanisms practiced in different sciences, the so-called hard-soft divide which distinguishes natural sciences versus humanities is also revisited. The study addresses the following four questions:
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives among textbooks, research articles and research reports?
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives between humanities and sciences?
Are there differences in frequency and pragmatic function of interrogatives among different fields ?
Is there any difference between Persian and English language to handle the pragmatic functions of interrogatives ?
This research follows a descriptive-analytical procedure. The statistical population includes undergraduate level scientific textbooks, research articles as well as research reports. Needless to say, all of these sub-genres are written by university professors but each sub-genre addresses especial audience. The sample is collected from the afore-mentioned texts in six humanities fields (Persian literature, linguistics, law, psychology, social sciences, and accounting), and six sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology and computer science).
In each academic field, 6 textbooks, 30 research articles and 4 research reports are selected. Considering 12 fields the corpus of study includes 72 textbooks, 360articles and 48 research reports. The books are original Persian manuscripts (not translated books), articles are selected from two or three peer-referred academic journal, and reports are also written by faculty members in Payam-e Noor University in East Azerbaijan. Since the frequency of interrogatives is counted in 10000 words scale, first the number of words in each text is counted. The sub-genre of textbooks includes 2948020 word (about 3 millions), and articles and research reports have 2112669 (about 2 millions) and 696205 (about 700,000) words respectively. As, such, the whole corpus includes 5756894 (about 5 million and 700,000) words.
With an eye to the seven pragmatic functions outlined by Hyland (2002), it should be mentioned that in only two texts (two research articles) interrogative structure is employed as the text title. The model’s second function, i.e. frame purpose is the most frequent pattern, as from the 1234 detected interrogatives in the whole corpus, 835 ones (about 70 percent) imply this pragmatic function. Therefore, it can be claimed that in these three genres, writers prefer to present questions in the beginning of their texts and then attempt to provide answers to them. The frequency in the text organization (81) and establish niche (63) is not significant, and the low number of cases in fifth function, i.e. express evaluation shows that the involved writers did not take any critical positions. The frequency of sixth and seventh functions are higher. In sum, for 10000 words of the corpus 2.1 interrogative structure is employed by the writers.
With respect to the science-humanities divide, it is revealed that the frequency of interrogatives in the humanities (3.1 cases in 10000 words) is much higher than that of sciences (0.9 cases in 10000).
In only two fields, i.e. linguistics and psychology all seven discourse functions are used, and in most disciplines- especially in sciences- most discourse functions have not been employed by the authors. One noticeable exception to this general pattern is physics, as using interrogatives in this field is apparently more popular than in law and accounting.
To answer the first question of the study, it should be maintained that writers of the three genres under study behave differently as the number of interrogatives in the textbooks is higher than that of research articles and research reports. Articles and reports have quite the same number of interrogatives. To explain the difference, it is maintained that textbooks are mainly prepared for undergraduate students. Student are usually fresh in the subject, and therefore writers are supposed to write explicitly. One method to reach explicitness is to design some questions and then try to answer them. In contrast, articles and research reports are substantially written for peers. The writers, in these cases, believe that the potential readers are academic agents and therefore using engagement devices like interrogatives would be unnecessary.
With respect to the second research question, it is shown that humanities and sciences behave quite differently as far as using interrogatives is concerned. This finding supports the claims made by Snow (1959,1998) and Tauber (2009) who have recognized substantial differences between humanities and sciences, leading to the long-standing debate as humanities-science divide.
Regarding the third question, it should be acknowledged that among the very disciplines in both humanities and sciences, writers do not have similar tendency towards using interrogatives. Linguistics and literature-with a little difference- occupy the first and second positions followed by psychology. As stated earlier, in the corpus of sciences, the frequency of interrogatives is lower, although the field of physics is an exception.
To compare the findings of the present study with those of Hyland (2002), it is shown that the frequency reported by Hyland is much higher (7.2 cases in 10000 words) than that of Persian corpus (2.1 cases in 10000 words). It can be concluded that writers in Hong Kong university are eager to use interrogatives structure to attract their readers. To explain the difference, we have to address the subject of writing in two different educational contexts. The students and researchers in Hong Kong are familiar with the basics of the writing in general and academic writing in particular, while their counterparts in Iran lack such competence. To interpret this general tendency it is maintained that in humanities, especially in fields such as linguistics and literature, writers are more familiar with linguistic structures. They are technically more language-aware and therefore act more competently. In contrast, scientists are more rigid in their language, and actually they are taught and recommended to use inflexible, non-humanistic language. Needless to say, an advanced, rigid tone in the text does not require any engagement with the reader.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6825_bf1b2f4b901c21a1d8645018ea9aeb05.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Verb Movement in Sanandaji Kurdish: A Minimalist approachVerb Movement in Sanandaji Kurdish: A Minimalist approach5095326826FAMojganOsmaniPh.D. Candidate, Department of Linguistics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranMohammadDabir-MoghaddamProfessor, Department of Linguistics, Allameh Tabataba'i Uuniversity, Tehran, IranArsalanGolfamAssociate Professor, Department of Linguistics, Tabiat Modares University, Tehran, IranJournal ArticleThe present paper is about the syntactic verb movement in Sanandaji within the minimalist program. To achieve this goal, verb movement can be considered from two approaches: a) strong or weak agreement system based on Pollock (1989), Belletti (1991), and Chomsky (1995), B) the split inflectional system based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998). The movement of the main verb based on the strong and weak agreement system in the Kurdish language has been investigated using the ellipsis of the verb phrase as diagnostic. In recent studies, however, the ellipsis of the verb phrase has been challenged in Persian languages. Having studied briefly linguistics’ view, we argue in favor of verb ellipsis in Sanandaji Kurdish and use it to show verb movement in this language. But verb movement in the Kurdish language has not been studied based on the second approach, which is the split inflectional system. Based on this approach in languages that have a split inflectional system, there is an obligatory verb movement. Thus, not only do we review the previous view on the main verb movement, but we study from a new point of view. In this study, based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, we will show that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish and the structural position of the main verb in this language is the head of the tense phrase.
Introduction
The present paper is about the syntactic verb movement in Sanandaji within the minimalist program. In Iranian languages, the verb appears at the end of the sentence; hence it is not easy to show verb movement. Before turn to the main topic, this question comes to mind why we should believe in verb movement? The answer seems to be, nothing, except that Chomsky (19995) argues that uninterpretable categorical features on a head are checked under the syntactic relation of sisterhood. Unlike English, In the Kurdish language, the valued tense feature of little v is strong, so it must be local to the feature it checks by. To achieve this goal, verb movement can be considered from two approaches: a) strong or weak agreement system based on Pollock (1989), Belletti (1991), and Chomsky (1995), B) the split inflectional system based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998). We will show that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish and the structural position of the main verb in this language is the head of the tense phrase.
Literature Review
There have been many studies on Kurdish. The majority of these studies are traditional descriptive studies on the language. The review of these studies on Kurdish shows that there is indeed a serious lack of theoretical analysis on verb movement. The only works devoted to the analysis of verb movement in Kurdish is Osmani (2015). He provides some empirical evidence, including the position of VP-ellipsis and confirmatory tag questions favoring verb movement out of vP in Kurdish. Darzi and Anooshe (2010) is an important work on this topic in Persian. To the extent that Iranian languages have had some close ancestors, we mention this work here. Darzi and Anooshe (2010) provide several empirical evidence, including the position of lower adverbials, VP-ellipsis, confirmatory tag questions, and the interaction between tense and perfect aspect, favoring verb movement out of vP in Persian.
Methodology
Approaching the question of verb movement in Kurdish from previous works will be the issue that I will take up and explore first. The rest of the research will be devoted to applying a novel approach in favor of the proposed analysis of verb movement in Kurdish. The data reported in this paper are drawn from Sanandaji Kurdish which is a variety of the Sorani Kurdish, spoken mainly in Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province of Iran. These data are also mentioned by the author whose native language is Kurdish as well.
Result
The movement of the main verb based on the strong and weak agreement system in the Kurdish language has been investigated using the ellipsis of the verb phrase as diagnostic. These analyses in the Persian language including (1) the v-stranding verb phrase ellipsis, (2) the null argument, (3) the DP/NP Ellipsis. Considering the affinity between Persian and Kurdish languages, many of the generalization in the ellipsis of the verb phrase construction in the Persian language can be applied in Sanandaji Kurdish language. Therefore, in this article, we consider verb phrase ellipsis in Persian language and then, use the result in the analyses of Sanandaji Kurdish language data. Finally, it appears that based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, the findings of the research indicate that the ellipsis of the verb phrase construction exists in Sanandaji Kurdish language. However, verb movement in the Kurdish language has not been studied based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998), which is the split inflectional system. Based on this approach languages with obligatory verb movement must have a split IP structure. Conversely, languages in which the verb remains in the VP must have a simple IP. Thus, the architecture of the IP complex correlates with the position of the finite verb.
Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998) support their claims by two types of empirical evidence. First, they predict that data showing that the split-IP languages have more specifier positions in the IP complex than languages with a simple IP. This is expected since the additional functional projections in the split IP languages provide additional specifiers. This prediction born out in Kurdish –Kurdish data is representative of object shift which is taken to mark the left edge of VP. This data has constituted one of the major empirical motivations for the existence of split IP. Second, they predict that the languages with only a simple IP are restricted to having maximally one inflectional morpheme attached to the inflected verb. Conversely, languages with a split IP will allow distinct markers of tense and agreement to co-occur on finite verbs. This prediction is correct in Kurdish. We provide some Kurdish data that allows the expression of both tense and agreement by discrete morphemes. Thus, not only do we review the previous view on the main verb movement, but we study from a new point of view. In this study, based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, we showed that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish language and the structural position of the main verb in Sannadaji Kurdish is the head of the tense phraseThe present paper is about the syntactic verb movement in Sanandaji within the minimalist program. To achieve this goal, verb movement can be considered from two approaches: a) strong or weak agreement system based on Pollock (1989), Belletti (1991), and Chomsky (1995), B) the split inflectional system based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998). The movement of the main verb based on the strong and weak agreement system in the Kurdish language has been investigated using the ellipsis of the verb phrase as diagnostic. In recent studies, however, the ellipsis of the verb phrase has been challenged in Persian languages. Having studied briefly linguistics’ view, we argue in favor of verb ellipsis in Sanandaji Kurdish and use it to show verb movement in this language. But verb movement in the Kurdish language has not been studied based on the second approach, which is the split inflectional system. Based on this approach in languages that have a split inflectional system, there is an obligatory verb movement. Thus, not only do we review the previous view on the main verb movement, but we study from a new point of view. In this study, based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, we will show that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish and the structural position of the main verb in this language is the head of the tense phrase.
Introduction
The present paper is about the syntactic verb movement in Sanandaji within the minimalist program. In Iranian languages, the verb appears at the end of the sentence; hence it is not easy to show verb movement. Before turn to the main topic, this question comes to mind why we should believe in verb movement? The answer seems to be, nothing, except that Chomsky (19995) argues that uninterpretable categorical features on a head are checked under the syntactic relation of sisterhood. Unlike English, In the Kurdish language, the valued tense feature of little v is strong, so it must be local to the feature it checks by. To achieve this goal, verb movement can be considered from two approaches: a) strong or weak agreement system based on Pollock (1989), Belletti (1991), and Chomsky (1995), B) the split inflectional system based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998). We will show that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish and the structural position of the main verb in this language is the head of the tense phrase.
Literature Review
There have been many studies on Kurdish. The majority of these studies are traditional descriptive studies on the language. The review of these studies on Kurdish shows that there is indeed a serious lack of theoretical analysis on verb movement. The only works devoted to the analysis of verb movement in Kurdish is Osmani (2015). He provides some empirical evidence, including the position of VP-ellipsis and confirmatory tag questions favoring verb movement out of vP in Kurdish. Darzi and Anooshe (2010) is an important work on this topic in Persian. To the extent that Iranian languages have had some close ancestors, we mention this work here. Darzi and Anooshe (2010) provide several empirical evidence, including the position of lower adverbials, VP-ellipsis, confirmatory tag questions, and the interaction between tense and perfect aspect, favoring verb movement out of vP in Persian.
Methodology
Approaching the question of verb movement in Kurdish from previous works will be the issue that I will take up and explore first. The rest of the research will be devoted to applying a novel approach in favor of the proposed analysis of verb movement in Kurdish. The data reported in this paper are drawn from Sanandaji Kurdish which is a variety of the Sorani Kurdish, spoken mainly in Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province of Iran. These data are also mentioned by the author whose native language is Kurdish as well.
Result
The movement of the main verb based on the strong and weak agreement system in the Kurdish language has been investigated using the ellipsis of the verb phrase as diagnostic. These analyses in the Persian language including (1) the v-stranding verb phrase ellipsis, (2) the null argument, (3) the DP/NP Ellipsis. Considering the affinity between Persian and Kurdish languages, many of the generalization in the ellipsis of the verb phrase construction in the Persian language can be applied in Sanandaji Kurdish language. Therefore, in this article, we consider verb phrase ellipsis in Persian language and then, use the result in the analyses of Sanandaji Kurdish language data. Finally, it appears that based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, the findings of the research indicate that the ellipsis of the verb phrase construction exists in Sanandaji Kurdish language. However, verb movement in the Kurdish language has not been studied based on Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998), which is the split inflectional system. Based on this approach languages with obligatory verb movement must have a split IP structure. Conversely, languages in which the verb remains in the VP must have a simple IP. Thus, the architecture of the IP complex correlates with the position of the finite verb.
Bobaljik & Thráinsson(1998) support their claims by two types of empirical evidence. First, they predict that data showing that the split-IP languages have more specifier positions in the IP complex than languages with a simple IP. This is expected since the additional functional projections in the split IP languages provide additional specifiers. This prediction born out in Kurdish –Kurdish data is representative of object shift which is taken to mark the left edge of VP. This data has constituted one of the major empirical motivations for the existence of split IP. Second, they predict that the languages with only a simple IP are restricted to having maximally one inflectional morpheme attached to the inflected verb. Conversely, languages with a split IP will allow distinct markers of tense and agreement to co-occur on finite verbs. This prediction is correct in Kurdish. We provide some Kurdish data that allows the expression of both tense and agreement by discrete morphemes. Thus, not only do we review the previous view on the main verb movement, but we study from a new point of view. In this study, based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, we showed that there is verb movement in Sanandaji Kurdish language and the structural position of the main verb in Sannadaji Kurdish is the head of the tense phrasehttps://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6826_0ec04cb3912c4f08874dd03716f80df1.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Vowel Space in Hearing Aided, Cochlear Implanted and Normally Hearing ChildrenVowel Space in Hearing Aided, Cochlear Implanted and Normally Hearing Children5335656827FAAsmaIzadiM.Sc.in Linguistics, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, IranVahidehAbolhasanizadehAssistant Professor, Department of Linguistics, Department of Foreign Languages, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, IranAzadehSharifimoghadamAssociate Professor, Department of Linguistics, Department of Foreign Languages, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, IranJournal ArticleWe live in a world of language and we communicate with each other using language (Fromkin et al., 2007). Deafness occurs when a person cannot understand speech through hearing, even when the sound is amplified. The degree of hearing loss is measured according to the sensitivity of deaf people’s ears to the sounds (Ganji, 2017) and then those people are asked to use hearing aids or do cochlear implantation surgery (Ebrahimi, 2006). Children have the opportunity to hear others’ speech during normal speech development while children with hearing impairment lose much of the auditory input, which may hinder speech development (Tseng et al., 2011 as cited in Serry and Blamey, 1999; Blamey et al., 2001; Peng et al., 2004; Bouchard et al., 2007). Different factors will affect speech development. One of these factors is DISABILITY, any disorder in hearing will affect speech and subsequently will cause problems in communication (Amiri et al., 2014). Some speech characteristics of children with hearing loss are different from each other and different from normally hearing children (Kord et al., 2012). GENDER is another factor affecting speech. While analyzing vowels produced by Azari speakers, Mirahadi et al. (2018) proved that men produce some vowels different from women.
Vowel space is a vowel quadrilateral which is used to shows the first and the second formants. Phoneticians put vowels in the vowel space according to their position in the oral cavity, which was first introduced by Essner (1947) and Joos (1948) (as cited in Harrington & Cassidy, 1999). The first formant will increase as we go down the vowel space, it shows highness of tongue while producing vowels in the oral cavity. The second formant shows anterior or posterior position of tongue in the process of production of vowels in the oral cavity and will increase as we go to the left side of the vowel space (Hayward, 2013: 227, 228 & 502).
The present study aims to compare the vowel space of hearing aided, cochlear implanted, and normally hearing children, with DISABILITY and GENDER as factors, in order to investigate the difference between the vowels produced by these children (Their average age was 10 years and 4 months and their participation in the study was optional, after getting permission from their parents.) and find out more effective hearing aid tools among two groups of children with DISABILITY (They did not have any mental or physical problems except hearing impairment and took part in language therapy classes for about 450 hours.), the group which makes vowels similar to normally hearing children will prove the effectivity of the hearing aid tools. So, the results will be useful for language therapists while helping children learn how to pronounce vowels.
Therefore, the participants, 5 girls and 5 boys in each group, were asked to repeat thirty-six CVC framed words. Each word consists of one of the stops [p, b, t, d, k, g] in the onset and offset of the pattern and one of the Persian vowels [æ, e, o, a, i, u] in the center. Then the words were recorded using a Shure microphone in PRAAT software. After that, the first and the second formants of each vowel were measured and by using SPSS software the data was analyzed.
The results showed that the effect of DISABILITY on the first formant of vowels [æ, a, i, u] and the second formant of vowels [a, e, o, u] was significantly different (p < 0.050). The results of a Post Hoc Bonferroni test showed that children with DISABILITY produced vowels [u, i, e, ᴂ] in a lower place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. Cochlear implanted children produced vowel [a] in a lower place and vowel [o] in a higher place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. Hearing aided children produced vowel [a] in a higher place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. All vowels in cochlear implanted children and vowels [ᴂ, a, e, i, u] in hearing aided children were produced in an anterior place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings.
The results also proved that the effect of GENDER on the first formant of vowel [a] and the second formant of vowel [i] was significantly different (p < 0.050). The results of a Post Hoc Bonferroni test revealed that the mean of the first formant of vowel [a] in girls was more than boys and the mean of the second formant of vowel [i] in girls was less than boys.
It is also important to mention that hearing aided children had the smallest vowel space among three groups of participants while the vowel space of cochlear implanted children was not so different from the vowel space of normally hearings. So, language therapists have to try more to teach vowels to the children who use hearing aids comparing to the children who are cochlear implanted.We live in a world of language and we communicate with each other using language (Fromkin et al., 2007). Deafness occurs when a person cannot understand speech through hearing, even when the sound is amplified. The degree of hearing loss is measured according to the sensitivity of deaf people’s ears to the sounds (Ganji, 2017) and then those people are asked to use hearing aids or do cochlear implantation surgery (Ebrahimi, 2006). Children have the opportunity to hear others’ speech during normal speech development while children with hearing impairment lose much of the auditory input, which may hinder speech development (Tseng et al., 2011 as cited in Serry and Blamey, 1999; Blamey et al., 2001; Peng et al., 2004; Bouchard et al., 2007). Different factors will affect speech development. One of these factors is DISABILITY, any disorder in hearing will affect speech and subsequently will cause problems in communication (Amiri et al., 2014). Some speech characteristics of children with hearing loss are different from each other and different from normally hearing children (Kord et al., 2012). GENDER is another factor affecting speech. While analyzing vowels produced by Azari speakers, Mirahadi et al. (2018) proved that men produce some vowels different from women.
Vowel space is a vowel quadrilateral which is used to shows the first and the second formants. Phoneticians put vowels in the vowel space according to their position in the oral cavity, which was first introduced by Essner (1947) and Joos (1948) (as cited in Harrington & Cassidy, 1999). The first formant will increase as we go down the vowel space, it shows highness of tongue while producing vowels in the oral cavity. The second formant shows anterior or posterior position of tongue in the process of production of vowels in the oral cavity and will increase as we go to the left side of the vowel space (Hayward, 2013: 227, 228 & 502).
The present study aims to compare the vowel space of hearing aided, cochlear implanted, and normally hearing children, with DISABILITY and GENDER as factors, in order to investigate the difference between the vowels produced by these children (Their average age was 10 years and 4 months and their participation in the study was optional, after getting permission from their parents.) and find out more effective hearing aid tools among two groups of children with DISABILITY (They did not have any mental or physical problems except hearing impairment and took part in language therapy classes for about 450 hours.), the group which makes vowels similar to normally hearing children will prove the effectivity of the hearing aid tools. So, the results will be useful for language therapists while helping children learn how to pronounce vowels.
Therefore, the participants, 5 girls and 5 boys in each group, were asked to repeat thirty-six CVC framed words. Each word consists of one of the stops [p, b, t, d, k, g] in the onset and offset of the pattern and one of the Persian vowels [æ, e, o, a, i, u] in the center. Then the words were recorded using a Shure microphone in PRAAT software. After that, the first and the second formants of each vowel were measured and by using SPSS software the data was analyzed.
The results showed that the effect of DISABILITY on the first formant of vowels [æ, a, i, u] and the second formant of vowels [a, e, o, u] was significantly different (p < 0.050). The results of a Post Hoc Bonferroni test showed that children with DISABILITY produced vowels [u, i, e, ᴂ] in a lower place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. Cochlear implanted children produced vowel [a] in a lower place and vowel [o] in a higher place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. Hearing aided children produced vowel [a] in a higher place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings. All vowels in cochlear implanted children and vowels [ᴂ, a, e, i, u] in hearing aided children were produced in an anterior place in the vowel space comparing to normally hearings.
The results also proved that the effect of GENDER on the first formant of vowel [a] and the second formant of vowel [i] was significantly different (p < 0.050). The results of a Post Hoc Bonferroni test revealed that the mean of the first formant of vowel [a] in girls was more than boys and the mean of the second formant of vowel [i] in girls was less than boys.
It is also important to mention that hearing aided children had the smallest vowel space among three groups of participants while the vowel space of cochlear implanted children was not so different from the vowel space of normally hearings. So, language therapists have to try more to teach vowels to the children who use hearing aids comparing to the children who are cochlear implanted.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6827_4a1c2f4dcf2bf76b6b278ae40875d536.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Identifying and Classifying the Challenges of Persian Language Instructors to Non-Persian Speakers in Multicultural ClassesIdentifying and Classifying the Challenges of Persian Language Instructors to Non-Persian Speakers in Multicultural Classes5676046828FAZahraAbbasiAssistant Professor, Persian Language Teaching, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.HayatAmeriAssociate Professor, Department of Linguistics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran0000-0002-2627-3862HosseinMardanloo MoghadamPhD Candidate in Persian language and literature, Tarbiat Modares University, TehranJournal ArticleIn general, multicultural education is any form of education that includes the history, texts, values, beliefs, and views of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. In many cases, "culture" is a general term that includes concepts such as race, ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, social class, gender, and exceptionality. Studies in the field of multicultural education show that useful teaching in multicultural classrooms is undoubtedly one of the biggest challenges that teachers face today (Den Brok & Levy, 2005; Howard, 2000; Jeevanantham, 2001). One of the reasons for the importance of multicultural research, especially in the field of language teaching, is that understanding the diversity of people is one of the most important needs of educational contexts; Because around the world, classes are becoming more and more diverse and multicultural (Den Brok & Levy, 2005).
The purpose of this study is to identify, categorize and prioritize the challenges and problems of Persian language teachers in multicultural classes and also to provide practical solutions to address these challenges based on Teachers' opinions and feedback.
Multicultural education was originally born out of the black civil rights movement in the United States; but it did not take long for all cultural groups that had been discriminated against to join the movement. The "multicultural challenge" is so important that it has been called the "fourth force in psychology" after theories of psychological analysis, behaviorism, and humanism (Pedersen, 1991). More recently, more attention has been paid to multicultural content education (Berg-Cross, & Takushi-Chinen, 1995; Ramsey, 2000; Reynolds, 1995; Schoem, et al. 1995), because the many challenges facing multicultural teachers and educators are more well-known and more addressed.
According to Ramsey (1996), students' initial knowledge, depth of understanding, speed of progress, level of cooperation, and degree of acceptance of the multicultural education process usually vary. These differences in the development of individual identity may also pose educational challenges for teachers. Franklin (2001) does not limit the challenges in multicultural classrooms to race and language, and also considers religious differences, issues of gender equality, students with disabilities, single people, or homosexual parents. In addition, the teacher's ability in terms of awareness, identity development and skill level may affect all aspects of education. Teachers must maintain and continuously strengthen their multicultural awareness and have complete control over the educational content and they have the necessary managerial ability to manage the classroom, so as to provide welfare and a better learning environment for students (Reynolds, 1995). Iranian researchers have also studied the subject of multicultural education; unfortunately, these studies have not examined Persian language courses for foreigners, which are mostly multicultural training courses. Most of this research is related to study of multicultural subject and curriculum (Iraqieh et al., 2009; Sadeghi, 2010; Sadeghi, 2012; Iraqieh, 2013; Malekipour and Hakimzadeh, 2016; Afshin et al., 2016; Sobhani Nejad et al., 2017) and multiculturalism and educational resources (Vafaei and Sobhaninejad 2015; Hawas Beigi et al., 2018). At the National Conference on Multicultural Education, held in Urmia, various papers were presented in this field, a small number of which addressed the challenges of teachers in multicultural classes and most of them on the subject of multicultural curriculum; Javidi (2013) investigated the problems of teaching due to cultural diversity (Case study: primary school students in West Azerbaijan province) And Fahimi and Sheikhzadeh (2013) have also studied the role of teachers in multicultural curriculum planning from the perspective of high school social studies teachers in Urmia.
The questions of this research are: what are the main challenges and problems of Persian language teachers in multicultural classes? And which of these challenges is more frequent and what are the solutions to solve these problems? To find the answers to these questions, a questionnaire was designed and used based on theoretical foundations, standard questionnaires in this field and the views and opinions of 56 experienced Persian language teachers to foreigners. The validity of the questionnaire was checked by 16 Persian language teachers and it modified and confirmed. The challenges faced by teachers in Persian language teaching classes to foreigners were extracted and 9 factors sets were identified based on factor analysis. Data were statistically analyzed. In this way, we identified various factors and identified the most important sub-factors and the most common solutions proposed by the instructors participating in this study were presented to address these challenges. Ranking the key factors of teachers' challenges in multicultural classes based on the average rankings shows that cultural factors are first, educational factors are second, religious factors are third, and factors of learning, teaching, emotional, motivation, Prior language skills and social factors ranked fourth to ninth, respectively.
The results of Friedman test showed that these sub-factors are ranked first in each of the nine factors:
Cultural factor: different values in relation to girl-boy relationships;
Prior language knowledge factor: students' inability to write in the target language;
Learning factor: different learning styles;
Educational factor: the difficulty of adapting the lessons to the needs of language learners;
Teaching agent: Finding a teaching method that is useful for all language learners;
Religious factor: religious and propaganda aspects of the content of Persian language books;
Motivation factor: lack of interest of some language learners in doing homework;
Emotional factor: Low teacher's tolerance threshold for existing problems and teacher's inability to solve problems
And social factor: the sub-factor of misunderstanding between learners with each other in understanding social cues.
Instructors participating in the research suggested the following solutions to address the challenges of multicultural classrooms:
• Development of the concept of multicultural education;
• Informing teachers about the methods of organizing and designing a multicultural curriculum;
• Informing instructors of the various approaches to designing and implementing multicultural learning activities;
• Extensive familiarity of teachers with a variety of resources in the multicultural curriculum;
• Use of various multicultural approaches in teaching;
• Production of educational content with appropriate cultural contentIn general, multicultural education is any form of education that includes the history, texts, values, beliefs, and views of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. In many cases, "culture" is a general term that includes concepts such as race, ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, social class, gender, and exceptionality. Studies in the field of multicultural education show that useful teaching in multicultural classrooms is undoubtedly one of the biggest challenges that teachers face today (Den Brok & Levy, 2005; Howard, 2000; Jeevanantham, 2001). One of the reasons for the importance of multicultural research, especially in the field of language teaching, is that understanding the diversity of people is one of the most important needs of educational contexts; Because around the world, classes are becoming more and more diverse and multicultural (Den Brok & Levy, 2005).
The purpose of this study is to identify, categorize and prioritize the challenges and problems of Persian language teachers in multicultural classes and also to provide practical solutions to address these challenges based on Teachers' opinions and feedback.
Multicultural education was originally born out of the black civil rights movement in the United States; but it did not take long for all cultural groups that had been discriminated against to join the movement. The "multicultural challenge" is so important that it has been called the "fourth force in psychology" after theories of psychological analysis, behaviorism, and humanism (Pedersen, 1991). More recently, more attention has been paid to multicultural content education (Berg-Cross, & Takushi-Chinen, 1995; Ramsey, 2000; Reynolds, 1995; Schoem, et al. 1995), because the many challenges facing multicultural teachers and educators are more well-known and more addressed.
According to Ramsey (1996), students' initial knowledge, depth of understanding, speed of progress, level of cooperation, and degree of acceptance of the multicultural education process usually vary. These differences in the development of individual identity may also pose educational challenges for teachers. Franklin (2001) does not limit the challenges in multicultural classrooms to race and language, and also considers religious differences, issues of gender equality, students with disabilities, single people, or homosexual parents. In addition, the teacher's ability in terms of awareness, identity development and skill level may affect all aspects of education. Teachers must maintain and continuously strengthen their multicultural awareness and have complete control over the educational content and they have the necessary managerial ability to manage the classroom, so as to provide welfare and a better learning environment for students (Reynolds, 1995). Iranian researchers have also studied the subject of multicultural education; unfortunately, these studies have not examined Persian language courses for foreigners, which are mostly multicultural training courses. Most of this research is related to study of multicultural subject and curriculum (Iraqieh et al., 2009; Sadeghi, 2010; Sadeghi, 2012; Iraqieh, 2013; Malekipour and Hakimzadeh, 2016; Afshin et al., 2016; Sobhani Nejad et al., 2017) and multiculturalism and educational resources (Vafaei and Sobhaninejad 2015; Hawas Beigi et al., 2018). At the National Conference on Multicultural Education, held in Urmia, various papers were presented in this field, a small number of which addressed the challenges of teachers in multicultural classes and most of them on the subject of multicultural curriculum; Javidi (2013) investigated the problems of teaching due to cultural diversity (Case study: primary school students in West Azerbaijan province) And Fahimi and Sheikhzadeh (2013) have also studied the role of teachers in multicultural curriculum planning from the perspective of high school social studies teachers in Urmia.
The questions of this research are: what are the main challenges and problems of Persian language teachers in multicultural classes? And which of these challenges is more frequent and what are the solutions to solve these problems? To find the answers to these questions, a questionnaire was designed and used based on theoretical foundations, standard questionnaires in this field and the views and opinions of 56 experienced Persian language teachers to foreigners. The validity of the questionnaire was checked by 16 Persian language teachers and it modified and confirmed. The challenges faced by teachers in Persian language teaching classes to foreigners were extracted and 9 factors sets were identified based on factor analysis. Data were statistically analyzed. In this way, we identified various factors and identified the most important sub-factors and the most common solutions proposed by the instructors participating in this study were presented to address these challenges. Ranking the key factors of teachers' challenges in multicultural classes based on the average rankings shows that cultural factors are first, educational factors are second, religious factors are third, and factors of learning, teaching, emotional, motivation, Prior language skills and social factors ranked fourth to ninth, respectively.
The results of Friedman test showed that these sub-factors are ranked first in each of the nine factors:
Cultural factor: different values in relation to girl-boy relationships;
Prior language knowledge factor: students' inability to write in the target language;
Learning factor: different learning styles;
Educational factor: the difficulty of adapting the lessons to the needs of language learners;
Teaching agent: Finding a teaching method that is useful for all language learners;
Religious factor: religious and propaganda aspects of the content of Persian language books;
Motivation factor: lack of interest of some language learners in doing homework;
Emotional factor: Low teacher's tolerance threshold for existing problems and teacher's inability to solve problems
And social factor: the sub-factor of misunderstanding between learners with each other in understanding social cues.
Instructors participating in the research suggested the following solutions to address the challenges of multicultural classrooms:
• Development of the concept of multicultural education;
• Informing teachers about the methods of organizing and designing a multicultural curriculum;
• Informing instructors of the various approaches to designing and implementing multicultural learning activities;
• Extensive familiarity of teachers with a variety of resources in the multicultural curriculum;
• Use of various multicultural approaches in teaching;
• Production of educational content with appropriate cultural contenthttps://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6828_11348e03e23b137d55d94464250a67a2.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Effect of Dynamic and Non-Dynamic Assessment on the Comprehension of Iranian Intermediate EFL Learnersâ Speech Acts of Apology and RequestThe Effect of Dynamic and Non-Dynamic Assessment on the Comprehension of Iranian Intermediate EFL Learnersâ Speech Acts of Apology and Request6056376829FAAliDerakhshanAssociate Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Golestan University, Gorgan, Iran0000-0002-6639-9339FarzanehShakkiPhD Candidate in Applied Linguistics, Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Golestan University, Gorgan, IranMohammad AminSaraniMA in TEFL, Department of English Language Teaching, Gorgan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gorgan, IranJournal ArticlePragmatics, which is one of the most eminent concepts in the world of language learning and teaching, has established itself in various academic fields. The teachability of pragmatics has been investigated in a plethora of studies (Derakhshan & Shakki, 2020; Shakki et al., 2020), though scant attention has been given to assessing and testing pragmatic features. It has been a long time that practitioners and teachers use traditional assessment to assess students, but with the emergence of new approaches in teaching, there should be new ways to test and assess learners. The present study is theoretically underpinned by Vygotsky’s (1978) Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT), which postulates that a person’ cognition is mediated socially during the interaction, and it emphasizes a mediated relationship not a direct relationship which is the basis for Dynamic Assessment (DA). He believes that the development of a child consists of two levels, namely actual level and potential level of development. Activating the Zone of Proximal Developmnet (ZPD), which is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development, requires guidance and collaboration. Since assessing the speech acts of apology and request through DA has not been taken into account so far, the present study aimed to find out the effects of DA on the acquisition of Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ speech act of apology and request. To this end, 66 students, selected from Shokouh Language Institute in Kalaleh, Golestan Providence, Iran, participated in this study.
Research Question:
Does dynamic vs. non-dynamic assessments (NDA) have any effect on the acquisition of Iranian intermediate EFL learner’s speech act of apology and request?
Three groups of language learners whose language proficiency was determined by Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT), participated in the present study. The total number of the participants was 85 Iranian learners, from whom 66 were selected as intermediate level whose scores ranged from 24 to 30, according to OQPT. The gender of the students was both male and female, and learners aged from 15 to 19. Their native language was Persian, and they were studying English as a second language. After homogenizing learners, they were divided into three groups, one DA, one NDA, and one control group. Listening pragmatic comprehension test, devised and validated by Birjandi and Derakhshan (2014), was utilized as the pretest and posttest of the study. First, the participants were tested before the intervention; after teaching speech acts to learners (30 apology and request video vignettes that were taken from seasons and episodes of 13 Reasons Why and Suits), the learners were tested by the listening pragmatic comprehension test to compare the results. In this study, to have homogeneous learners for all three groups, the mean and standard deviation of the proficiency test were calculated. To answer the research question, the scores taken from pretest and posttest were submitted to the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS).
To find the effectiveness of the treatment, the means of control group, NDA group, and DA group were compared. In order to make sure whether or not the groups were statistically different, One-way ANOVA test and post hoc test of Tukey were run. Based on the mean scores for the pretest in one DA and two NDA groups, which are 58.88, 55.92, and 55.67, it is shown that little difference exists among the three groups. However, in order to make sure whether or not the groups are similar statistically, One-way ANOVA test was conducted. The Sig. value is .92 which demonstrates that since this is more than .05, it can be concluded that there is not a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the three groups. On the other hand, the mean scores for the posttest in one DA, NDA, and control group, respectively, were 117.42, 72.83, and 61.58, showing that the groups are different. Furthermore, the Sig. value is 0.00, which is smaller than .05, so this means that the intervention which was implemented in the DA group was effective. Since the obtained value does not show where the significant difference exists, post hoc test of Tukey was used to find the statistical significance between the groups. The values corresponding with the comparison between the DA group and NDA groups are smaller than .05.
For this reason, it can be concluded that the difference between DA group and the other two groups is statistically significant. However, the comparison between the two NDA groups revealed that they are not significantly different from each other (p=.392>.05). The results of one-way ANOVA test indicated that there were statistically meaningful differences across groups, and the results of post hoc test of Tukey revealed that dynamic group outperformed both non-dynamic and control groups, but no meaningful difference was found between non-dynamic and control groups although non-dynamic had a better mean score compared to that of control group. Considering the findings of the present study, it is suggested that harmonizing the instruction and testing provides opportunities for the learners, and learning should be individualized in order to have better outcomes. To put it in a nutshell, giving students contextually appropriate input has been a pivotal factor to increase learners’ pragmatic ability while understanding and performing the speech acts. In light of the gained results, the present study offers some implications for teachers, learners, and materials developers. It is suggested that teachers apply DA in their language classrooms to maximize interaction, mediation, and negotiation.Pragmatics, which is one of the most eminent concepts in the world of language learning and teaching, has established itself in various academic fields. The teachability of pragmatics has been investigated in a plethora of studies (Derakhshan & Shakki, 2020; Shakki et al., 2020), though scant attention has been given to assessing and testing pragmatic features. It has been a long time that practitioners and teachers use traditional assessment to assess students, but with the emergence of new approaches in teaching, there should be new ways to test and assess learners. The present study is theoretically underpinned by Vygotsky’s (1978) Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT), which postulates that a person’ cognition is mediated socially during the interaction, and it emphasizes a mediated relationship not a direct relationship which is the basis for Dynamic Assessment (DA). He believes that the development of a child consists of two levels, namely actual level and potential level of development. Activating the Zone of Proximal Developmnet (ZPD), which is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development, requires guidance and collaboration. Since assessing the speech acts of apology and request through DA has not been taken into account so far, the present study aimed to find out the effects of DA on the acquisition of Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ speech act of apology and request. To this end, 66 students, selected from Shokouh Language Institute in Kalaleh, Golestan Providence, Iran, participated in this study.
Research Question:
Does dynamic vs. non-dynamic assessments (NDA) have any effect on the acquisition of Iranian intermediate EFL learner’s speech act of apology and request?
Three groups of language learners whose language proficiency was determined by Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT), participated in the present study. The total number of the participants was 85 Iranian learners, from whom 66 were selected as intermediate level whose scores ranged from 24 to 30, according to OQPT. The gender of the students was both male and female, and learners aged from 15 to 19. Their native language was Persian, and they were studying English as a second language. After homogenizing learners, they were divided into three groups, one DA, one NDA, and one control group. Listening pragmatic comprehension test, devised and validated by Birjandi and Derakhshan (2014), was utilized as the pretest and posttest of the study. First, the participants were tested before the intervention; after teaching speech acts to learners (30 apology and request video vignettes that were taken from seasons and episodes of 13 Reasons Why and Suits), the learners were tested by the listening pragmatic comprehension test to compare the results. In this study, to have homogeneous learners for all three groups, the mean and standard deviation of the proficiency test were calculated. To answer the research question, the scores taken from pretest and posttest were submitted to the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS).
To find the effectiveness of the treatment, the means of control group, NDA group, and DA group were compared. In order to make sure whether or not the groups were statistically different, One-way ANOVA test and post hoc test of Tukey were run. Based on the mean scores for the pretest in one DA and two NDA groups, which are 58.88, 55.92, and 55.67, it is shown that little difference exists among the three groups. However, in order to make sure whether or not the groups are similar statistically, One-way ANOVA test was conducted. The Sig. value is .92 which demonstrates that since this is more than .05, it can be concluded that there is not a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the three groups. On the other hand, the mean scores for the posttest in one DA, NDA, and control group, respectively, were 117.42, 72.83, and 61.58, showing that the groups are different. Furthermore, the Sig. value is 0.00, which is smaller than .05, so this means that the intervention which was implemented in the DA group was effective. Since the obtained value does not show where the significant difference exists, post hoc test of Tukey was used to find the statistical significance between the groups. The values corresponding with the comparison between the DA group and NDA groups are smaller than .05.
For this reason, it can be concluded that the difference between DA group and the other two groups is statistically significant. However, the comparison between the two NDA groups revealed that they are not significantly different from each other (p=.392>.05). The results of one-way ANOVA test indicated that there were statistically meaningful differences across groups, and the results of post hoc test of Tukey revealed that dynamic group outperformed both non-dynamic and control groups, but no meaningful difference was found between non-dynamic and control groups although non-dynamic had a better mean score compared to that of control group. Considering the findings of the present study, it is suggested that harmonizing the instruction and testing provides opportunities for the learners, and learning should be individualized in order to have better outcomes. To put it in a nutshell, giving students contextually appropriate input has been a pivotal factor to increase learners’ pragmatic ability while understanding and performing the speech acts. In light of the gained results, the present study offers some implications for teachers, learners, and materials developers. It is suggested that teachers apply DA in their language classrooms to maximize interaction, mediation, and negotiation.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6829_8bd2c3f7fd5b165b470beb1cc83071ab.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Kinship Terms and Terms of Address in Nænæji DialectKinship Terms and Terms of Address in Nænæji Dialect6396676830FARezaAminiPhD in General Linguistics, Assistant Professor of Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Tehran, Iran.Journal ArticleIn this article, which is a descriptive – analytical research, and the first research done about Nænæji dialect, the use of kinship terms and terms of address in this dialect is studied. This dialect is spoken in village of Nænæj, in Malayer County, Iran. Nænæji can be considered as a variety of Persian being influenced by Lori, Laki, and Kurdish languages.
In “introduction”, some basic points about the research and its goals are presented; then the village of Nænæj is briefly introduced; and finally the main questions of the research are presented as:
Concerning age degree of the informants, what kinds of changes can be seen in use of kinship terms and terms of address in Nænæji dialect, in recent decades?
What are the causes of change in kinship terms and terms of address of Nænæji dialect?
The data, gathered in a field work and through network participation in the language community, are analyzed in four separate categories: kinship terms coming from consanguinity, kinship terms coming from affinity, kinship terms coming from RAḌᾹ and brotherhood formula (based on Islamic jurisprudence or Fiqh), and address terms for nonrelatives. Data have been analyzed through using concepts and terms of George Peter Murdock and Lewis Henry Morgan. In other words, partly, this research is based on what Murdock and Morgan have said about kinship terms in different languages of the worlds.
In “review of the literature”, a number of researches done about the use of kinship terms in different Iranian languages, namely Persian, Kurdish and Gilaki, are reviewed, to show that the present research can complete the researches done in this field.
This research reveals, among the rest, that Nænæji has a rich array of kinship terms and terms of address. Also, analysis of Nænæji kinship terms coming from consanguinity, Nænæji kinship terms coming from affinity, Nænæji kinship terms coming from RAḌᾹ, and Nænæji address terms for nonrelatives, shows that in using all of them we see deep changes in recent decades; in a way that decrease in variety of kinship terms and address terms of the dialect is something clear. In fact, in recent decades, Nænæji kinship terms have moved towards missing distinctions based on age, disappearance of derivative and descriptive terms, and accepting standard Persian’s norms and terms.
The research also reveals that today in Nænæji, the use of some of the kinship terms and terms of address is restricted to middle and old age groups. It also indicates that change in community relationships and family structure, migration and urbanization are the causes of Nænæji kinship terms and terms of address become obsolete and even extinct; and the standard Persian equivalent substitute them. This is a clear example of dialect levelling in Iran.In this article, which is a descriptive – analytical research, and the first research done about Nænæji dialect, the use of kinship terms and terms of address in this dialect is studied. This dialect is spoken in village of Nænæj, in Malayer County, Iran. Nænæji can be considered as a variety of Persian being influenced by Lori, Laki, and Kurdish languages.
In “introduction”, some basic points about the research and its goals are presented; then the village of Nænæj is briefly introduced; and finally the main questions of the research are presented as:
Concerning age degree of the informants, what kinds of changes can be seen in use of kinship terms and terms of address in Nænæji dialect, in recent decades?
What are the causes of change in kinship terms and terms of address of Nænæji dialect?
The data, gathered in a field work and through network participation in the language community, are analyzed in four separate categories: kinship terms coming from consanguinity, kinship terms coming from affinity, kinship terms coming from RAḌᾹ and brotherhood formula (based on Islamic jurisprudence or Fiqh), and address terms for nonrelatives. Data have been analyzed through using concepts and terms of George Peter Murdock and Lewis Henry Morgan. In other words, partly, this research is based on what Murdock and Morgan have said about kinship terms in different languages of the worlds.
In “review of the literature”, a number of researches done about the use of kinship terms in different Iranian languages, namely Persian, Kurdish and Gilaki, are reviewed, to show that the present research can complete the researches done in this field.
This research reveals, among the rest, that Nænæji has a rich array of kinship terms and terms of address. Also, analysis of Nænæji kinship terms coming from consanguinity, Nænæji kinship terms coming from affinity, Nænæji kinship terms coming from RAḌᾹ, and Nænæji address terms for nonrelatives, shows that in using all of them we see deep changes in recent decades; in a way that decrease in variety of kinship terms and address terms of the dialect is something clear. In fact, in recent decades, Nænæji kinship terms have moved towards missing distinctions based on age, disappearance of derivative and descriptive terms, and accepting standard Persian’s norms and terms.
The research also reveals that today in Nænæji, the use of some of the kinship terms and terms of address is restricted to middle and old age groups. It also indicates that change in community relationships and family structure, migration and urbanization are the causes of Nænæji kinship terms and terms of address become obsolete and even extinct; and the standard Persian equivalent substitute them. This is a clear example of dialect levelling in Iran.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6830_5e9fb672ee46be628a141b594d7c6f3e.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922A Critical Evaluation of the New English Language Program in the National System from the Perspective of ELT Curriculum Specialists: The Language-in-education Policy and Planning FrameworkA Critical Evaluation of the New English Language Program in the National System from the Perspective of ELT Curriculum Specialists: The Language-in-education Policy and Planning Framework6697036831FAHosseinDavariAssistant Professor, English Department, Damghan University, Damghan, IranAbutalebIranmehrAssistant Professor, English Department, Shahroud University of Technology, Shahroud, Iran.Seyyed BehnamAlavi MoghaddamAssociate Professor, Organization for Educational Research and Planning, Tehran, IranSaeedNourzadehAssistant Professor of English Language Teaching, Department of English, Damghan University, Damghan, Iran0000-0002-4476-1843Journal ArticleAfter the approval of the Document on the Fundamental Transformation of Education and the implementation of the National Curriculum, we have witnessed the implementation of a new curriculum on English in the education system. The program, with a change in the teaching approach, as well as the preparation and compilation of newly developed textbooks, has had a major difference with the previous traditional and inefficient program. Due to the fact that practically all first and second levels of high school textbooks have been developed and taught, the necessity of critical analysis and evaluation of the program, with due attention to its strengths and weaknesses from different perspectives is inevitable. To achieve this, the present paper, using the language-in-education policy and planning framework and through a qualitative analysis has attempted to assess and analyze the new English language program, through delving into attitudes of five experts in the field of English language planning. The findings indicate that the new program, along with its strengths, suffers from deficiencies in teacher education, curriculum period, and especially student evaluation; such ignorance leaves of the new program with serious challenges. In the end, based on the findings of the research, suggestions are made to reduce potential and actual weaknesses of the program as well as strategies are introduced to improve it.
1. Introduction
The post-revolutionary system of English language education in Iran has undergone various changes; the last one dates back to 2013. Following the approval of two significant higher-level educational documents known as the Document on the Fundamental Transformation of Education and the Document of the National Curriculum, the English language education in the Iranian formal system has experienced its most fundamental, and of course, controversial reform (Alavi-Moghaddam & Kheirabadi, 2013). In fact, the program, with a change in its approach, as well as reform in the preparation and compilation of new textbooks, has experienced a major difference with the previous traditional and inefficient program (Davari et al., 2018).
Conceiving the importance of this reform and the necessity of its evaluation at this stage, which has been mostly neglected in the available research on the topic, the researchers attempted to critically evaluate the program. In a more precise word, using the language-in-education policy and planning framework, they attempted to assess and analyze the new English language program.
2. Literature Review
The story of English education in Iran has been described and documented in a grwing number of works including Farhady et al. (2010), Borjian (2013), Atai and Mazlum (2013), Davari and Aghagolzadeh (2015), Aghagolzadeh and Davari (2017) and Iranmehr and Davari (2018).
Despite the difference in their points of view, the point in common in these works is the belief that English education in Iran suffers from serious shortcomings for which the necessity of a thorogh evaluation is perceived. Despite this fact, reviewing such works reveals that the English curriculum in Iranian education system, especially the new curriculum, intending to reform the education of this language in schools, has not been studied and analyzed from a policy and planning framework of evaluation. In doing so, this study is an attempt to critically evaluate the new program of English education through integrating an efficient policy and planning-based framework.
To serve this purpose, Kaplan and Baldauf's (1997) language-in-education planning (LEP) framework was adopted as the point of movement. Their framework presents a rather comprehensive platform for evaluating educational programs through five dimensions (curriculum policy, personnel policy, methods and materials policy, community policy, and evaluation policy). The study would try to keep a critical eye on the evaluation of the new Iranian program of English language education with respect to these five dimensions so that the shortcomings and limitations of the policies and practices could be highlighted.
3. Methodology
The sampling method used in this study was that of criterion-based selection. In this form of sampling, the researcher creates a list of attributes essential to the study and then seeks out participants to match these criteria. The criteria in this research were: a) Having PhD in applied linguistics; b) Having expertise in ELT curriculum development and evaluation; c) Being familiar with the English language education in schools. Then, eight specialists with such criteria were contacted, out of which five accepted to take part as participants in the research. Among the different types of the interviews, the semi-structured one was selected (Dörnyei, 2007) and the findings were thematically analyzed.
4. Results
Regarding the first policy, namely the curriculum policy, findings revealed that the new program suffers from two serious shortcomings. First, the reduction of seven years of English education in the previous program to six years in the new program is in contrast with the essence of the communicative approach. Second, the crowded classes, leading to less exposure of students to English, cannot meet the curriculum objectives. Such findings are in line with Aghagolzadeh and Davari (2017).
Concerning the second policy, i.e. the personnel policy, findings showed that setting new criteria in teacher selection and holding teacher education courses seem necessary. In specialists' views, due to differences in teachers' abilities and skills as well as tangible lack of professional knowledge among them, the implementation of the new program is faced with challenges. In their attitudes, the teachers' awareness of such changes in the curriculum is of upmost importance, though its absence is quite evident. Such findings are in line with Alavi-Moghaddam et al. (2018).
With regard to the third policy, namely methods and materials policy, the specialists' attitudes were positive. In their views, this reform in approach, teaching method and especially textbook development has been essential. However, they clearly asserted that due to the significant position of textbooks in Iran, as the main source of input in education system, their constant revision and update are necessary. In doing so, considering the views of materials developers as well as paying attention to teachers' feedback were emphasized.
Concerning the fourth policy, namely community policy, findings revealed that they had two concerns. At first, the reconstruction of the society’s view toward English language is necessary. Secondly, supplying the financial needs of implementing a nationwide program like this must be considered. In their views, the accompaniment of students along with their families with the new program can guarantee its success.
Regarding the last policy, i.e. evaluation policy, the participants had a negative attitude. In their views, the current university entrance exam imposes heavy burden on the new program. In a more precise word, in their views the successful assessment of learners' knowledge and skills cannot be achieved by the current exams.
5. Conclusion
In all, the findings indicate that the new program, along with its strengths, suffers from deficiencies in teacher education, curriculum period, and especially student evaluation; such ignorance leaves the new program with serious challenges.
The findings also promise some principal implications. First, they will redound to the benefit of language planners integrating the latest innovations in the field of curriculum development as well as considering the specialists' attitudes with regard to the program. Since the ever developing world of educational arena calls for a curriculum which meets the objectives, the findings of the present research can provide the language planners and material developers with an approach in which a thorough evaluation of the new program can be achieved.
Another possible line of research is investigating the teachers' attitudes and perceptions about the recent reform in the Iranian ELT program and the above-mentioned policies. Through such research, undoubtedly a more comprehensive evaluation of the program is provided.After the approval of the Document on the Fundamental Transformation of Education and the implementation of the National Curriculum, we have witnessed the implementation of a new curriculum on English in the education system. The program, with a change in the teaching approach, as well as the preparation and compilation of newly developed textbooks, has had a major difference with the previous traditional and inefficient program. Due to the fact that practically all first and second levels of high school textbooks have been developed and taught, the necessity of critical analysis and evaluation of the program, with due attention to its strengths and weaknesses from different perspectives is inevitable. To achieve this, the present paper, using the language-in-education policy and planning framework and through a qualitative analysis has attempted to assess and analyze the new English language program, through delving into attitudes of five experts in the field of English language planning. The findings indicate that the new program, along with its strengths, suffers from deficiencies in teacher education, curriculum period, and especially student evaluation; such ignorance leaves of the new program with serious challenges. In the end, based on the findings of the research, suggestions are made to reduce potential and actual weaknesses of the program as well as strategies are introduced to improve it.
1. Introduction
The post-revolutionary system of English language education in Iran has undergone various changes; the last one dates back to 2013. Following the approval of two significant higher-level educational documents known as the Document on the Fundamental Transformation of Education and the Document of the National Curriculum, the English language education in the Iranian formal system has experienced its most fundamental, and of course, controversial reform (Alavi-Moghaddam & Kheirabadi, 2013). In fact, the program, with a change in its approach, as well as reform in the preparation and compilation of new textbooks, has experienced a major difference with the previous traditional and inefficient program (Davari et al., 2018).
Conceiving the importance of this reform and the necessity of its evaluation at this stage, which has been mostly neglected in the available research on the topic, the researchers attempted to critically evaluate the program. In a more precise word, using the language-in-education policy and planning framework, they attempted to assess and analyze the new English language program.
2. Literature Review
The story of English education in Iran has been described and documented in a grwing number of works including Farhady et al. (2010), Borjian (2013), Atai and Mazlum (2013), Davari and Aghagolzadeh (2015), Aghagolzadeh and Davari (2017) and Iranmehr and Davari (2018).
Despite the difference in their points of view, the point in common in these works is the belief that English education in Iran suffers from serious shortcomings for which the necessity of a thorogh evaluation is perceived. Despite this fact, reviewing such works reveals that the English curriculum in Iranian education system, especially the new curriculum, intending to reform the education of this language in schools, has not been studied and analyzed from a policy and planning framework of evaluation. In doing so, this study is an attempt to critically evaluate the new program of English education through integrating an efficient policy and planning-based framework.
To serve this purpose, Kaplan and Baldauf's (1997) language-in-education planning (LEP) framework was adopted as the point of movement. Their framework presents a rather comprehensive platform for evaluating educational programs through five dimensions (curriculum policy, personnel policy, methods and materials policy, community policy, and evaluation policy). The study would try to keep a critical eye on the evaluation of the new Iranian program of English language education with respect to these five dimensions so that the shortcomings and limitations of the policies and practices could be highlighted.
3. Methodology
The sampling method used in this study was that of criterion-based selection. In this form of sampling, the researcher creates a list of attributes essential to the study and then seeks out participants to match these criteria. The criteria in this research were: a) Having PhD in applied linguistics; b) Having expertise in ELT curriculum development and evaluation; c) Being familiar with the English language education in schools. Then, eight specialists with such criteria were contacted, out of which five accepted to take part as participants in the research. Among the different types of the interviews, the semi-structured one was selected (Dörnyei, 2007) and the findings were thematically analyzed.
4. Results
Regarding the first policy, namely the curriculum policy, findings revealed that the new program suffers from two serious shortcomings. First, the reduction of seven years of English education in the previous program to six years in the new program is in contrast with the essence of the communicative approach. Second, the crowded classes, leading to less exposure of students to English, cannot meet the curriculum objectives. Such findings are in line with Aghagolzadeh and Davari (2017).
Concerning the second policy, i.e. the personnel policy, findings showed that setting new criteria in teacher selection and holding teacher education courses seem necessary. In specialists' views, due to differences in teachers' abilities and skills as well as tangible lack of professional knowledge among them, the implementation of the new program is faced with challenges. In their attitudes, the teachers' awareness of such changes in the curriculum is of upmost importance, though its absence is quite evident. Such findings are in line with Alavi-Moghaddam et al. (2018).
With regard to the third policy, namely methods and materials policy, the specialists' attitudes were positive. In their views, this reform in approach, teaching method and especially textbook development has been essential. However, they clearly asserted that due to the significant position of textbooks in Iran, as the main source of input in education system, their constant revision and update are necessary. In doing so, considering the views of materials developers as well as paying attention to teachers' feedback were emphasized.
Concerning the fourth policy, namely community policy, findings revealed that they had two concerns. At first, the reconstruction of the society’s view toward English language is necessary. Secondly, supplying the financial needs of implementing a nationwide program like this must be considered. In their views, the accompaniment of students along with their families with the new program can guarantee its success.
Regarding the last policy, i.e. evaluation policy, the participants had a negative attitude. In their views, the current university entrance exam imposes heavy burden on the new program. In a more precise word, in their views the successful assessment of learners' knowledge and skills cannot be achieved by the current exams.
5. Conclusion
In all, the findings indicate that the new program, along with its strengths, suffers from deficiencies in teacher education, curriculum period, and especially student evaluation; such ignorance leaves the new program with serious challenges.
The findings also promise some principal implications. First, they will redound to the benefit of language planners integrating the latest innovations in the field of curriculum development as well as considering the specialists' attitudes with regard to the program. Since the ever developing world of educational arena calls for a curriculum which meets the objectives, the findings of the present research can provide the language planners and material developers with an approach in which a thorough evaluation of the new program can be achieved.
Another possible line of research is investigating the teachers' attitudes and perceptions about the recent reform in the Iranian ELT program and the above-mentioned policies. Through such research, undoubtedly a more comprehensive evaluation of the program is provided.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6831_4d0b954f0bef437c29dfa73fafdf3fa5.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Analyzing Semio-discursive Components of the Notion of Doubt in Literary Discourse: The Case Study of â As You had Told Leyliâ by Sepideh ShamlouAnalyzing Semio-discursive Components of the Notion of Doubt in Literary Discourse: The Case Study of â As You had Told Leyliâ by Sepideh Shamlou7057336832FARezaRezaeiAssistant Professor of General Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities, Department of English Language and Literature , Yasouj University, Yasouj–Iran.0000-0002-7636-6135Journal ArticleThe current research aims to analyze and classify the semio-discursive components of Narrative “doubt” in the discursive system of “As you had told Leyli” – the novel by Sepideh shamloo- one of the writers of Persian fourth generation fictional generation. Research methodology is descriptive –analytical. In fact, the authors seeks to explain for the first time the underlying semio-discursive components of “doubt “in literary discourse by relying on the theoretical framework of post –Gremassian semiotics in order to show how the notion of “doubt “ emerges in the literary discourse and affects the process of meaning production and perception. To this end, the main objective of the present research is to answer the following questions: 1. what are the main semio-discursive components of “doubt” in literary discourse? 2. What are the major narrative and semio-discursive functions of “doubt” in the whole discursive system of the novel? It can conclude that in semiotic analysis of “As you had told Leyli” two main actants of the novel (Mastaneh –Sharareh) enter in competition with each other for the concept of love. This competition results in the interplay of negation and affirmation at the heart of semio-discursive system of the novel. As seen throughout the current research, by highlighting the Leyli’s scheme, the writer tries to challenge the narrators / enunciators affective states throughout the history of the novel. The main thematic of this story which is doubt is the central and main narrative program of the novel. Neither Mastaneh nor Sharareh can approach to Leyli’s scheme. In fact, in this work discursive tension sometimes leads to discursive action (here Mastaneh’s suicide) and sometimes to negate it. It is worth mentioning that the marginalized narrative action casts doubt on Leyli’s scheme and in this step Sharareh loses her modal competence and is concerned with modal verbs turbulence. The enunciator who has the virtual semiotic presence till the end of narrative. Undoubtedly, this novel presents a semio-discursive paradigm whose main feature is “doubt”. In this novel, discursive action has the secondary function and is based on thymic (the interaction, multiplication and turbulence of modal constituents), tensive and existential components of discourse which are highly under the influence of negative functions. Consequently, none of the enunciators/ narrators can never retrieve their actual presence. The results showed that narrative doubt is as a result of tensive and existential components of discourse which marginalizes in its own turn the narrative action and has the close relationship with all the styles of semiotic presence whose meaning is based on negation and fall and affects the process of meaning production and perception.The current research aims to analyze and classify the semio-discursive components of Narrative “doubt” in the discursive system of “As you had told Leyli” – the novel by Sepideh shamloo- one of the writers of Persian fourth generation fictional generation. Research methodology is descriptive –analytical. In fact, the authors seeks to explain for the first time the underlying semio-discursive components of “doubt “in literary discourse by relying on the theoretical framework of post –Gremassian semiotics in order to show how the notion of “doubt “ emerges in the literary discourse and affects the process of meaning production and perception. To this end, the main objective of the present research is to answer the following questions: 1. what are the main semio-discursive components of “doubt” in literary discourse? 2. What are the major narrative and semio-discursive functions of “doubt” in the whole discursive system of the novel? It can conclude that in semiotic analysis of “As you had told Leyli” two main actants of the novel (Mastaneh –Sharareh) enter in competition with each other for the concept of love. This competition results in the interplay of negation and affirmation at the heart of semio-discursive system of the novel. As seen throughout the current research, by highlighting the Leyli’s scheme, the writer tries to challenge the narrators / enunciators affective states throughout the history of the novel. The main thematic of this story which is doubt is the central and main narrative program of the novel. Neither Mastaneh nor Sharareh can approach to Leyli’s scheme. In fact, in this work discursive tension sometimes leads to discursive action (here Mastaneh’s suicide) and sometimes to negate it. It is worth mentioning that the marginalized narrative action casts doubt on Leyli’s scheme and in this step Sharareh loses her modal competence and is concerned with modal verbs turbulence. The enunciator who has the virtual semiotic presence till the end of narrative. Undoubtedly, this novel presents a semio-discursive paradigm whose main feature is “doubt”. In this novel, discursive action has the secondary function and is based on thymic (the interaction, multiplication and turbulence of modal constituents), tensive and existential components of discourse which are highly under the influence of negative functions. Consequently, none of the enunciators/ narrators can never retrieve their actual presence. The results showed that narrative doubt is as a result of tensive and existential components of discourse which marginalizes in its own turn the narrative action and has the close relationship with all the styles of semiotic presence whose meaning is based on negation and fall and affects the process of meaning production and perception.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6832_349f36aa789af083b8e26839bd498af9.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922A Constructional Cognitive Approach to the Persian Suffix â-ÉrâA Constructional Cognitive Approach to the Persian Suffix â-Érâ7357666833FAParsaBamshadiPh.D. in Linguistics, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran.NegarDavari ArdakaniAssociate Professor of Linguistics, Shahid Beheshti University, TehranJournal ArticleIntroduction
Affixation is one of the two main word-formation processes in Persian. The suffix ‘-ɑr’ is a nominal (or adjectival) suffix in Persian which is believed by most researchers to express the subject/agent (like xæridɑr ‘buyer’), object/patient (like gereftɑr ‘captive’) or infinitive (like ræftar ‘behavior’) meaning. In Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 2008, 2009) and Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010, 2016) word-formation patterns are considered to be constructional schemas, i.e. schematic representations of morphological constructions. Constructions are pairings of form and meaning. The form pole of a construction includes morpho−syntactic and phonological properties. The meaning pole of a construction comprises semantic properties (conceptual structure), pragmatic properties and discourse properties. Cognitive Grammar posits that an expression invokes a set of cognitive domains as the basis for its meaning, i.e. as the content to be construed. Therefore, the meaning of a linguistic expression depends on two key notions of ‘cognitive domain’ and ‘construal’. A cognitive domain is a coherent area of conceptualization which provides the conceptual base for the meaning of a linguistic expression. The term construal refers to human manifest ability to conceive and express the same situation or event in alternate ways.
Purpose: The present research aims to explore the suffix ‘-ɑr’ within the framework of Cognitive Grammar and Construction Morphology and tries to identify its various constructional schemas and subschemas. Furthermore, it attempts to investigate cognitive domains that underlie the meaning of each subschemas and to analyze the role of construal in formation of each subschemas.
Study questions: the study questions are: (1) what are constructional schemas and subschemas of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ and how is hierarchical relationships among them?
(2) What cognitive domain(s) underlie the meaning of each subschema?
(3) Which cognitive processes do play determinant role in formation of these (sub) schemas?
Methodology: Empirically, the paper adopts corpus-based method and theoretically, it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. The data include a corpus of 38 derivational words having the suffix ‘-ɑr’ extracted from the authors own morphological corpus (including more than 10000 complex words) and Farhang-e Zansoo (Keshani, 1993).
Analysis: Analysis of research data showed that derivatives of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ belong to different constructional schemas. The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ is represented in Figure 1. As is shown in the figure, ‘-ɑr’ appears in six different subschemas, in five of which the base of derivation is past stem of a verb while in the other the base is a noun. The conceptual base of the five subschemas that have a verb stem as their base is the cognitive domain of ‘processes. The difference among these subschemas is that each subschema profiles a different aspect of the conceptual base. In other words, the difference among them is due to the key notion of ‘profiling’. In the subschema with a noun as the base of derivation, the conceptual base is the cognitive domain of ‘relation’.
Figure 1: The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ in Persian
Conclusion: Results of the study show that the suffix ‘-ɑr’, which is added to past stems of verbs or nouns, can appear in six different constructional subschemas to indicate the cognitive domains of process, agenthood, aspect and relation. These subschemas are:
1) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The human agent who perform the process of SEMi]j>
2) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The non-human agent (or instrument) which perform the process of SEMi]j>
3) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The act of doing the process of SEMi]j>
4) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The result of the process of SEMi]j>
5) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Aj ↔ [The property of being affected by the process of SEMi]j>
6) <[[x]Ni -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The thing closely related to SEMi]j>
The findings reveal that the cognitive process of ‘construal’ and especially its two aspects of ‘profiling’ and ‘specification’ have a determinant role in the formation of these constructional subschemas.Introduction
Affixation is one of the two main word-formation processes in Persian. The suffix ‘-ɑr’ is a nominal (or adjectival) suffix in Persian which is believed by most researchers to express the subject/agent (like xæridɑr ‘buyer’), object/patient (like gereftɑr ‘captive’) or infinitive (like ræftar ‘behavior’) meaning. In Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 2008, 2009) and Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010, 2016) word-formation patterns are considered to be constructional schemas, i.e. schematic representations of morphological constructions. Constructions are pairings of form and meaning. The form pole of a construction includes morpho−syntactic and phonological properties. The meaning pole of a construction comprises semantic properties (conceptual structure), pragmatic properties and discourse properties. Cognitive Grammar posits that an expression invokes a set of cognitive domains as the basis for its meaning, i.e. as the content to be construed. Therefore, the meaning of a linguistic expression depends on two key notions of ‘cognitive domain’ and ‘construal’. A cognitive domain is a coherent area of conceptualization which provides the conceptual base for the meaning of a linguistic expression. The term construal refers to human manifest ability to conceive and express the same situation or event in alternate ways.
Purpose: The present research aims to explore the suffix ‘-ɑr’ within the framework of Cognitive Grammar and Construction Morphology and tries to identify its various constructional schemas and subschemas. Furthermore, it attempts to investigate cognitive domains that underlie the meaning of each subschemas and to analyze the role of construal in formation of each subschemas.
Study questions: the study questions are: (1) what are constructional schemas and subschemas of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ and how is hierarchical relationships among them?
(2) What cognitive domain(s) underlie the meaning of each subschema?
(3) Which cognitive processes do play determinant role in formation of these (sub) schemas?
Methodology: Empirically, the paper adopts corpus-based method and theoretically, it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. The data include a corpus of 38 derivational words having the suffix ‘-ɑr’ extracted from the authors own morphological corpus (including more than 10000 complex words) and Farhang-e Zansoo (Keshani, 1993).
Analysis: Analysis of research data showed that derivatives of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ belong to different constructional schemas. The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ is represented in Figure 1. As is shown in the figure, ‘-ɑr’ appears in six different subschemas, in five of which the base of derivation is past stem of a verb while in the other the base is a noun. The conceptual base of the five subschemas that have a verb stem as their base is the cognitive domain of ‘processes. The difference among these subschemas is that each subschema profiles a different aspect of the conceptual base. In other words, the difference among them is due to the key notion of ‘profiling’. In the subschema with a noun as the base of derivation, the conceptual base is the cognitive domain of ‘relation’.
Figure 1: The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ in Persian
Conclusion: Results of the study show that the suffix ‘-ɑr’, which is added to past stems of verbs or nouns, can appear in six different constructional subschemas to indicate the cognitive domains of process, agenthood, aspect and relation. These subschemas are:
1) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The human agent who perform the process of SEMi]j>
2) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The non-human agent (or instrument) which perform the process of SEMi]j>
3) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The act of doing the process of SEMi]j>
4) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The result of the process of SEMi]j>
5) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Aj ↔ [The property of being affected by the process of SEMi]j>
6) <[[x]Ni -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The thing closely related to SEMi]j>
The findings reveal that the cognitive process of ‘construal’ and especially its two aspects of ‘profiling’ and ‘specification’ have a determinant role in the formation of these constructional subschemas.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6833_555183669058fb273008595a9393d628.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922Analyzing the Quality of Making Sense of the Phenomena: A Study in Theosophical Discourse based on Eric Landowskiâs ViewpointsAnalyzing the Quality of Making Sense of the Phenomena: A Study in Theosophical Discourse based on Eric Landowskiâs Viewpoints7677956834FAAtefeAmirifarPhD Candidate in Mystical Literature, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities, International University of Imam Khomeini, Qazvin, Iran.Seyed AliQasemzadehAssociate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran.Morteza BabakMoeinAssociate Professor, Department of French Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University,Journal ArticleOne of the difficulties for the addressee who encounters theosophical texts is the inability to comprehend the experiences gained by the theosophist. Regardless of language and scientific understanding of linguistic signs, it is impossible to discover how to make sense of the phenomenal world in theosophical discourse. In line with Heidegger who considers language the house of being, the truth of theosophy is also manifested in language; but for some reasons like the inability of language to express experiences, obstacles in the way of understanding the truth and theosophical experiences, the difficult topic and the extraordinarily of theosophist’s experiences, etc. theosophical language seems difficult and complicated to find. Especially in theosophical discourse, the theosophist/subject as an agent and narrator of theosophy encounters different objects. On the one hand there is the sensory phenomenal world and his sensual experience and on the other hand, we see his mental-theosophical experience which is the interansferable and immediate part of his experience. In this research and in the framework of phenomenological, linguistic and philosophical insights of Eric Landowski the authors have tried to decipher the process of signification of the phenomenal world in two attitudinal systems called Pantheism and Intuitionism in theosophical discourse. Ontologically speaking, the theosophist/subject portrays his relation to the world/text from two viewpoints which are existential and intuitional in nature. As a subject, he makes sense of the phenomenal world in new ways and consequently he will have a different process of birth and semiotic acquisition in front of himself. In this research it has been tried to apply some considerable principles and phenomenological basics in mystical discourse and the relationship between subject and object and subject to the text of the world. Concepts such as Perception, the sensitive, Lived experience, interaction of subject and object, Presence, mental perception and the way we look at phenomena, co-presence, the importance of motivation and Social requirements, etc., have paved the way to the study and analysis of the meaning and perception of the mystical discourse. This approach gives us the opportunity to focus on the subject and the object and the relationship between them. The present study provides a context for better understanding of meaning and phenomena. Based on discursive and phenomenological perspective, the present study attempts to examine the mystic-subject semiotic approach to the text of the world of phenomena in the field of theoretical mysticism. Therefore, the combination of mysticism discourse in this article refers to theoretical mysticism and mystical foundations based on ontology. The main objective of this paper is Rereading of how to produce meaning in two intuitive and existential approaches and in the language of mysticism, which have been done in the theoretical framework of Eric Landowski. This approach answers the following questions in this research:
How does the mystic look at the world of phenomena shape the subject view?
- How is it possible to establish a relationship between the meaning in the discourse of mysticism with the mystic thoughts and perceptions of mystical experience?
- How the presence of subject and two-way interaction cause to create meaning in mysticism?
The type of mystic view answers these questions; since the alterity and the object in the world of phenomena are determined by a reference point, and in the discourse of mysticism, this reference point is the mystic presence and narrator of mysticism who plays the role of an independent and dynamic subject.This semiotic process is undoubtedly based on the ontological view of the subject about the category of existence and its multiplicity in two mystical attitudes; that is, the view of intuitive unity and existential unity. The first factor in the difference between the processes of giving meaning to the text-world in these two mystical systems is the mystic-subject point of view, which creates two completely different way of the Scheduled and unity. The difference in the type of meaning of the text-world between the intuitive and existential mystic has continued to make difference between all the mystical beliefs such as having an instrumental view to phenomena or interaction with them, the concept of annihilation and the concept of theoretical and practical mystical education.One of the difficulties for the addressee who encounters theosophical texts is the inability to comprehend the experiences gained by the theosophist. Regardless of language and scientific understanding of linguistic signs, it is impossible to discover how to make sense of the phenomenal world in theosophical discourse. In line with Heidegger who considers language the house of being, the truth of theosophy is also manifested in language; but for some reasons like the inability of language to express experiences, obstacles in the way of understanding the truth and theosophical experiences, the difficult topic and the extraordinarily of theosophist’s experiences, etc. theosophical language seems difficult and complicated to find. Especially in theosophical discourse, the theosophist/subject as an agent and narrator of theosophy encounters different objects. On the one hand there is the sensory phenomenal world and his sensual experience and on the other hand, we see his mental-theosophical experience which is the interansferable and immediate part of his experience. In this research and in the framework of phenomenological, linguistic and philosophical insights of Eric Landowski the authors have tried to decipher the process of signification of the phenomenal world in two attitudinal systems called Pantheism and Intuitionism in theosophical discourse. Ontologically speaking, the theosophist/subject portrays his relation to the world/text from two viewpoints which are existential and intuitional in nature. As a subject, he makes sense of the phenomenal world in new ways and consequently he will have a different process of birth and semiotic acquisition in front of himself. In this research it has been tried to apply some considerable principles and phenomenological basics in mystical discourse and the relationship between subject and object and subject to the text of the world. Concepts such as Perception, the sensitive, Lived experience, interaction of subject and object, Presence, mental perception and the way we look at phenomena, co-presence, the importance of motivation and Social requirements, etc., have paved the way to the study and analysis of the meaning and perception of the mystical discourse. This approach gives us the opportunity to focus on the subject and the object and the relationship between them. The present study provides a context for better understanding of meaning and phenomena. Based on discursive and phenomenological perspective, the present study attempts to examine the mystic-subject semiotic approach to the text of the world of phenomena in the field of theoretical mysticism. Therefore, the combination of mysticism discourse in this article refers to theoretical mysticism and mystical foundations based on ontology. The main objective of this paper is Rereading of how to produce meaning in two intuitive and existential approaches and in the language of mysticism, which have been done in the theoretical framework of Eric Landowski. This approach answers the following questions in this research:
How does the mystic look at the world of phenomena shape the subject view?
- How is it possible to establish a relationship between the meaning in the discourse of mysticism with the mystic thoughts and perceptions of mystical experience?
- How the presence of subject and two-way interaction cause to create meaning in mysticism?
The type of mystic view answers these questions; since the alterity and the object in the world of phenomena are determined by a reference point, and in the discourse of mysticism, this reference point is the mystic presence and narrator of mysticism who plays the role of an independent and dynamic subject.This semiotic process is undoubtedly based on the ontological view of the subject about the category of existence and its multiplicity in two mystical attitudes; that is, the view of intuitive unity and existential unity. The first factor in the difference between the processes of giving meaning to the text-world in these two mystical systems is the mystic-subject point of view, which creates two completely different way of the Scheduled and unity. The difference in the type of meaning of the text-world between the intuitive and existential mystic has continued to make difference between all the mystical beliefs such as having an instrumental view to phenomena or interaction with them, the concept of annihilation and the concept of theoretical and practical mystical education.https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6834_ba038e2a20ded4a1d146841e6ed42f22.pdfTarbiat Modares UniversityLanguage Related Research2322-308111420200922The Need for Curriculum Reform in the French Language and Literature Program: The Case of Drama CourseThe Need for Curriculum Reform in the French Language and Literature Program: The Case of Drama Course7978236835FADominiqueCarnoy-TorabiAssociate Professor, Department of French Language and Literature, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranDanialBasanjAssistant Professor in Teaching FFL and LinguisticsDepartment of French Language and LiteratureShahid Beheshti UniversityMariamImanian MofradMA. in French literatureDepartment of French Language and LiteratureShahid Beheshti UniversityJournal ArticleThe present study lies within the framework of university education policy in Iran. The main purpose of this comparative study is the necessity to review the quantitative and qualitative content of the headlines of drama at the French language and literature program. What is presented in this study consists of three sections: in the first section, we will reconsider the theoretical bases of overviewing educational content. In the second section, a comparison is made between the current situation of teaching drama of the French language and literature groups in Iran and three credible foreign universities, and in the final section, we will evaluate and present principles for the revision process for this course. In this study, the main hypothesis is whether the drama course needs change in terms of goals, content, style and opportunity of learning and evaluation in Iran. And if so, what changes should be made and in what areas and how? Consequently, after reviewing the curriculum, the change seems necessary. This change should be made through the participation of universities, professors and curriculum specialists. The author’s suggestions are also provided on how to present the course and the changes to be made in this regard. Finally, what we believe has been overlooked in today's drama course, which is in dire need of overhaul, is the issue of fostering student creativity and critical thinking. It should be noted that purely written or purely oral content, in the case of this particular course, cannot meet the needs listed above. Attractiveness is also one of the elements included in our proposed program, because attractiveness motivates. To this end, in the proposed lesson plan, a mixed method has been envisaged to stimulate the interest of the students by making use of new techniques. In this regard, in the proposed lesson plan, one or more plays have been suggested for each lessonThe present study lies within the framework of university education policy in Iran. The main purpose of this comparative study is the necessity to review the quantitative and qualitative content of the headlines of drama at the French language and literature program. What is presented in this study consists of three sections: in the first section, we will reconsider the theoretical bases of overviewing educational content. In the second section, a comparison is made between the current situation of teaching drama of the French language and literature groups in Iran and three credible foreign universities, and in the final section, we will evaluate and present principles for the revision process for this course. In this study, the main hypothesis is whether the drama course needs change in terms of goals, content, style and opportunity of learning and evaluation in Iran. And if so, what changes should be made and in what areas and how? Consequently, after reviewing the curriculum, the change seems necessary. This change should be made through the participation of universities, professors and curriculum specialists. The author’s suggestions are also provided on how to present the course and the changes to be made in this regard. Finally, what we believe has been overlooked in today's drama course, which is in dire need of overhaul, is the issue of fostering student creativity and critical thinking. It should be noted that purely written or purely oral content, in the case of this particular course, cannot meet the needs listed above. Attractiveness is also one of the elements included in our proposed program, because attractiveness motivates. To this end, in the proposed lesson plan, a mixed method has been envisaged to stimulate the interest of the students by making use of new techniques. In this regard, in the proposed lesson plan, one or more plays have been suggested for each lessonhttps://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_6835_a992995ef4f0439b258f2360dbb85511.pdf