دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Representational Complexity of Persian Relative tenses during listening Comprehension پیچیدگی بازنمودی زمان‌های دستوری نسبی در فارسی به هنگام ادراک شنیداری جمله 1 32 7021 10.52547/LRR.13.2.1 FA معصومه مهرابی استادیار زبان‌شناسی. دانشگاه آیت‌الله العظمی بروجردی، لرستان، ایران 0000-0003-4852-1334 بهروز محمودی بختیاری دانشیار دانشکده هنرهای زیبا دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. 0000-0002-5671-4040 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The main question of the present study is that of psycholinguistic reality of Relative Tense in Persian; How Persian tenses are processed? Cross modal lexical decision tasks applied by dmdx software program have been used here to examine relative tense processing during sentence processing. Theoretical framework used here is that of Comrie (1985) linguistically and Shapiro (1990) psycholinguistically. Independent variable is the type of tense used in the verb form and the dependent variable is subjectsˈ reaction times to visual stimuli. 25 university students aged 18-30 participated in experiments who were divided into two groups; male and female participants. The results of the first experiment showed that sentences containing non-finite relative tense verbs, are processed later than the other tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and subjunctives). The explanation is to be found in the un-markedness of non-finites (lacking mood, tense, number). The results of the second experiment also showed that converting simple sentences to the complex ones will erase the meaningful differences in the participantsˈ reaction times. This shows that the independent variable of sentence type is much more effective on cognitive load than tense type. In these two experiments the gender of the participants is not effective. The findings can be used in curriculum design for non-natives of Persians as it shows the cognitive load of relative tenses across memory. 1. Introduction Different linguists have proposed different definitions for tense. This study investigates processing of sentences containing different relative tenses of Persian by the cross-modal lexical decision method. This psycholinguistic method has been used classically by Shapiro (1990) to estimate the cognitive load across the mind. The main question of this inquiry is the psycholinguistic reality of tense complexity hierarchy arranged for relative one. The theoretical framework is mainly based on episodic processing in which mental representations of linguistic items are not as abstract as it seems, but it is subject to the sensory input by which the representation is formed. Also the classification of Comrie (1985) on tenses has been applied here. He divided tenses into two broad categories of past/ non past. Absolute and relative types of the Persian tense have been elaborated and analyzed in detail. Research Question(s) The main question of the present study is that of psycholinguistic reality of Relative Tense in Persian; How Persian tenses are processed? 2. Literature Review Theoretical framework applied here is that of Comrie (1985) linguistically and Shapiro (1990) psycholinguistically. Mahmoodi-Bakhtiari (2002) has written in detail about the nature and function of variety of absolute and relative tenses in Persian. 3. Methodology The main question of the present study is that of psycholinguistic reality of Relative Tense in Persian. Cross modal lexical decision has been used here to examine relative tense processing during sentence comprehension. Theoretical framework applied here is that of Comrie (1985) in linguistics and Shapiro (1990) in psycholinguistics. Independent variable is the type of tense used in the verb form and the dependent variable is subjectsˈ reaction times. 25 students of universities aged 18-30 participated matched across some specific factors in this study. The results of the first experiment showed that sentences containing non-finite relative tense verbs, are processed later than the other tenses (present perfect. past perfect, and subjunctives). That may be related to the un-markedness of non-finites. The results of the second experiment also showed that converting simple sentences to the complex ones will erase the meaningful differences in the participantsˈ reaction times. In these two experiments the gender of the participants is not effective. The findings can be used in curriculum design for non-natives of Persians, for it shows the cognitive load of relative tenses across memory. 4. Results It was found out that, in terms of psycholinguistics, Persian has two absolute tenses : Past and present; as well as four relative tenses: the perfective. the pluperfect, the subjunctive, and the relative past. The main question of the present study is that of psycholinguistic reality of tense in Persian. Cross modal lexical decision has been used here to examine tense during sentence processing. The Persian language has a variety of absolute and relative tenses, each of which is used as needed, and Mahmoodi-Bakhtiari (2002) has written in detail about the nature and function of each, and since this work is a comprehensive description of the topic of time in Persian provides the basis for data collection of the present study. Since this work provides a comprehensive description of the topic of tense in Persian, it is the basis for collecting data from the present study. The two main research questions are: a) Which types of relative tenses is processed faster than the others and why? B) According to data from Persian language, what is the mental representation of grammatical relative tense in Persian? The two hypotheses corresponding to the questions of this research are that there is a significant difference between the processing time of sentences containing different types of relative tenses and also the complexity of these representations has a psychological reality. In order to answer the questions, two experiments have been developed. The results of the first experiment showed that sentences containing non-finite relative tense verbs, are processed later than the other tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and subjunctives). The explanation is to be found in the un-markedness of non-finites (lacking mood, tense, number). The results of the second experiment also showed that converting simple sentences to the complex ones will erase the meaningful differences in the participantsˈ reaction times. This reveals that the independent variable of sentence type is much more effective on cognitive load than tense type. In these two experiments the gender of the participants is not effective. If the cognitive burden/load may be considered as the basis of learning, this research can have implications for teaching Persian language. The high reputation of using reaction time in psychological research, especially in the field of cognition and language processing, is something beyond theoretical interest. The choice of mean reaction time as a dependent variable in widely used cognitive experiments is due to convenience. In this study, reaction time to the auditory stimulus is the basis for measuring cognitive load. Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental energy needed to perform a task. This mental energy can be nourished by memory, storage and retrieval. The concept of cognitive burden can be used in teaching Persian language and the research results can be considered in compiling educational materials . سؤال اصلی این تحقیق واقعیت روان‏شناختی پیچیدگی بازنمودی زمان دستوری نسبی در فارسی است؛ یعنی چگونگی ادراک شنیداری انواع مختلف زمان‏های دستوری نسبی فارسی. در اینجا روش تصمیم‏گیری واژگانی بیناحسی به‏کار رفته است تا نحوۀ پردازش جملات حاوی انواع زمان‏های دستوری نسبی با برنامۀ نرم‏افزاری انداز‏گیری زمان واکنش به هزارم ثانیه (dmdx ) بررسی‏ شود. چارچوب نظری مبتنی‌بر رمزگان چندبخشی/ چندگانۀ موردنظر شاپیرو (1990) در روان‏شناسی زبان و طبقه‏بندی زمانی موردنظر کامری (1985) در زبان‏شناسی است. متغیر مستقل نوع زمان دستوری و متغیر وابستۀ زمان واکنش آزمودنی‏ها به محرک دیداری است. آزمودنی‏ها 25 نفر دانشجوی 18 تا 30 ساله در دو گروه مرد و زن بوده‏اند. نتیجۀ آزمون اول نشان می‏دهد که جملات سادۀ حاوی زمان دستوری نسبی بی‏زمان (مصدر) دیر‏تر از انواع دیگر (حال کامل، گذشتۀ کامل و التزامی) پردازش می‏شوند. تبیینِ یافتۀ حاضر این است ‏که مصادر از آنجا که بی‏نشان‏ترین صورت فعلی هستند و فاقد وجه، زمان، شخص و شمار هستند شمول معنایی بیشتری دارند و دیرتر پردازش می‏شوند. نتیجۀ آزمون دوم نشان می‏دهد که زمان پردازش جملات مرکب حاوی زمان‏های نسبی مختلف تفاوت معنی‏دار با هم ندارد. به عبارت دیگر، با مرکب شدن نوع جمله تفاوت‏های معنی‏داری که در آزمون (1) قابل‌مشاهده بود ازبین رفته ‏است. این نکته نشان می‏دهد که متغیر نوع جمله نسبت‌به متغیر زمان دستوری فعل تأثیر بیشتری بر بار شناختی ذهن دارد. در این دو آزمون متغیر جنسیت آزمودنی‏ها بی‏اثر شناخته شده است. یافته‏ها را می‏توان در آموزش زبان فارسی، تدوین کتاب و تهیۀ مواد آموزشی مدنظر قرار داد.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Phonological Opacity in Kermanshahi Persian: An Account Based on Optimality Theory-Candidate Chains تیرگی واج‌شناختی در فارسی کرمانشاهی: بررسی نمونه‌ای براساس «نظریه بهینگی ـ زنجیره‌های گزینه‌ای» 33 69 7022 10.52547/LRR.13.2.2 FA مهدی فتاحی استادیار زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان انگلیسی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران. 0000-0002-1882-5591 لادن جواهری دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، گروه زبان انگلیسی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران 0000-0002-4970-2789 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The aim of this study is to analyze the role of phonological opacity in the phonetic representation of the prefix of progressive aspect in Kermanshahi Persian. In this dialect, when the progressive prefix /mi-/ is added to the verb stem, it changes in form in certain cases, depending on the nature of the first vowel of the verb. In Kermanshahi Persian, the progressive prefix is added to the left side of verbal root - which is, in turn, followed by verbal ending. This research is based on the Optimality Theory-Candidate Chains (McCarthy, 2007) - a version of Serial Optimality Theory. The data of this research have been collected through the conversations with the speakers of Kermanshahi Persian dialect in two age groups of over fifty- and under twenty-year-olds, relying – as well - on researchers' language intuition. The results of this study indicate that what causes the opacity in the phonetic representation of the vowel of progressive prefix in Kermanshahi Persian dialect is the occurrence of counter-bleeding interaction. The Serial Optimality Theory, is more successful in explaining this phenomenon than Parallel Optimality Theory. 1. Introduction Kermanshahi Persian is a dialect which is spoken in the city of Kermanshah mainly in the west of Iran, and it presents certain linguistic differences with Standard Persian. One of the morpho-phonological differences is in the phonetic form of the progressive prefix /mi-/ when attached to certain verbal stems. Like what occurs in Standard Persian with the subjunctive prefix /be-/, the vowel of the prefix /mi/ undergoes vowel harmony if the following verbal stem contains a round vowel, and just as in /be-ro/ ("Go!") which surfaces as [bo-ro] on the phonetic level, /mi-/ in Kermanshahi Kurdish turns into [mo-] if there is a round element in the verbal stem, making forms like [mo.-ko.n-am] (meaning 'I do') out of /mi-kon-am/. The motivation of the such rule, however, is challenged by the phonetic form [mo.-xɑm] (I want), in which the vowel of the prefix is rounded, but there does not seem to be any round element as the motivation. This opaque application of the phonological process is analyzed in this article via the principles Optimality Theory. The main questions of the present study are as follows: (1) to what extent is Optimality Theory successful in explaining the opacity introduced by Kermanshahi Persian data? (2) What are the relevant active constraints? (3) In what permutation must the constraints be organized? (4) Which of the two versions of Optimality Theory, namely Parallel or Serial, is more successful in the explanation of the data in this study? 2. Literature Review In order to prepare the grounds and to have a better insight into the present study, the review is based on the relevant works on phonological opacity and Optimality Theory which have been done inside and outside Iran. 2.1. International Studies Bermúdez-Otero (1999, pp. 36-39) is among the first researchers who reported the challenge which the first versions of OT were faced with regarding the opacity phenomenon, and he asserts that the difficulty lies in OT neglecting the intermediate forms between the phonological and phonetic levels. This claim is also supported by McCarthy (2007, p.99), who reports the necessity of considering derivational path of the phonological processes. Urek (2013, p.1), too, reasons that Parallel OT fails to explain opacity since the Generator in this theory is designed to produce the candidates in one attempt. Anttila (2006, p. 893-901) classifies the suggested solutions to the problem of opacity in OT in three sets: "Input-Output Correspondence" theory which was first put forth by Benua (1995, pp. 77-82); "Sympathy Theory" suggested by MacCarthy (1999, 2000); and "Opacity Approach" put forward by Goldrick (2000, p.16). Alqahtani (2020, p. 22) is among the recent researchers who has investigated opacity as the result of counter-bleeding by analyzing examples from colloquial Persian. Also, Hauser and Hughto (2020, p. 29) claim that the general solution to opacity in OT could be found in what they call "contextual faithfulness constraints". 2.1. Iranian Studies Many optimality-theoretic studies have been conducted in Iran on Persian and Kurdish data, among which one can mention those of Bijankhan (2006), Modarresi Ghavami (2011), Heidarpor Bidgoli (2012) in Persian; and Naqshbandi (2011), Fattahi (2012), Zahedi (2014), and Mohammadi (2014) in different dialects of Kurdish. As valuable as these studies are, none deals with the problem of opacity in Optimality Theory. 3. Methodology The data in the present study have been collected in two ways: (1) through interviews with Kermanshahi Persian speakers of two age groups of above fifty and below twenty. The first group was chosen for their tendency towards using this dialect in their daily conversations, and the younger group was chosen as speakers who lean towards Standard Persian for its social prestige. This study, though, does not aim to investigate linguistic variations of these two age groups, but rather tries to identify the alternating forms in the verbal forms with progressive aspect. (2) through linguistic intuition of the researchers of the study, who are themselves, native speakers of Kermanshahi Persian. The collected data were then transcribed and the relevant alternating forms were identified. The last step was to identify the underlying phonological forms in order to decide on the nature and direction of the changes. 4. Discussion and Results The following table illustrates the alternating forms of the progressive prefix in Kermanshahi Persian. Table 1 The Alternative Forms in Progressive Prefix of Kermanshahi Persian Dialog (1) mi.-bi.n-am prog. – see – 1S "I see." (2) mi.-xɑ.n-am prog. – read – 1S "I read." (3) mi.-bu.s-am prog. – kiss – 1S "I kiss." (4) mi.-ka.n.-am prog. – dig – 1S "I dig." (5) mi.-ʃu.r-am prog.- wash – 1S "I wash." (6) mi.-ke.ʃ-am prog.-pull-1S "I pull." (7) mo.- xor.-am prog.-eat-1S "I eat." (8) mi.- sɑ.z –am prog.-make-1S "I make." (9) mo.- ko.ʃ- i prog.-kill-2S "You kill." (10) mo.- ko.n- am prog.-do-1S "I do." (11) mo.- xɑ- m prog.-want-1S "I want." (12) mo.- wo.r -am prog.-cut-1S "I cut." * prog.: progressive – 1S: first person singular – 2S: second person singular As can be seen from the data above, the alternating forms of the progressive prefix are [mi] and [mo], with the latter appearing where there is a round element in the verbal stem. The exception, though, is (11), in which the vowel of the prefix has been rounded without any apparent incentive. To have a better picture of what is going on in this form, we can compare the root with its likely historical form by synchronically comparing it with other Iranian languages and the forms in the history of Persian language. As evident even in the Persian orthography, there used to be the glide /w/ after /x/ sound in the verbal root of "to eat". If we take the /xw/ cluster as the onset of the root, then we can assume the line of the change as below (the verbal ending is removed for simplification): /mi-xwɑ/ --(vowel rounding)à moxwɑ --(the omission of glide w)à[moxɑ] If the glide omission, which is motivated by cluster simplification, was applied earlier than vowel rounding, the process of vowel rounding would be bled by it, leading to the incorrect phonetic form of *[mi-xɑ]; but since the actual order is in the opposite direction, the order of vowel rounding and glide omission is that of counter-bleeding, which causes opacity. As was cited by many studies in the review section, parallel OT seems unable to choose correct opaque forms, the same is proved about Kermanshahi Persian data. Tableau 1 Inability of Parallel Optimality Theory to explain Opacity Phenomenon Ident (r) Aligh-left(r) mi-xwɑ-m * a. mixwɑm * b. moxwɑm Mc. mixɑm * d. moxɑm Notes: symbol M shows an incorrect winning candidate. - Aligh-left(r) constraint penalizes any candidate with no agreement in rounding - Ident (r) penalizes any candidate with a changed value in the feature [round] Optimality Theory-Candidate Chains, in addition to valuing the intermediate steps and derivational paths, enjoys a new form constraint that guarantees a fixed order of the application of the processes, namely Prec(A,B), in which constraint B is only violated if constraint A has been violated earlier. We can consider Prec(Ident(r),Max(r)) to penalize any candidate in which: (a) the round element is deleted without the process of vowel rounding having occurred earlier; (b) the round element is deleted and the vowel rounding occurs following that. With this constraint at play, we can consider the steps of derivation as depicted by the following tableaux. Tableau 2 The First Step of Derivation Ident (r) Max (r) No-Codaprg Prec(Id,Max) Complex-Syll Align-l(r) mi-xwɑ-m * * Fa. mox.wɑm * *! b. mi.xɑm * *! c. mix.wɑm * *! d. mox.wɑm Notes: Complex-Syll penalizes any candidate in which there is consonant cluster in a syllable - No-Codaprog penalizes any form with a coda in the same syllable as the progressive prefix- Max (r) penalizes any candidate in which a round segment has been deleted (compared with the input) Tableau 3 The Second Step of Derivation Ident (r) Max (r) No-Codaprog Prec(Id,Max) Complex-Syll Align-l(r) mox.wɑm * Fa. mo.xɑm *! b. mo.xwɑm *! c. mox.wɑm * * *! d. mix.wɑm Tableau 4 The Third Step of Derivation and the End of Cycle (Convergence) Ident (r) Max (r) No-Codaprog Prec(Id,Max) Complex-Syll Align-l(r) mo.xɑm Fa. mo.xɑm *! b. mo.xwɑm *! c. mox.wɑm *! d. mi.xɑm In Serial Optimality Theory, which OT-CC is a version of, the Generator is only allowed to produce candidates with one difference from the input. The winner chosen by the Evaluator will then be given to the same tableau, and there again, the Generator produces candidates with only one difference from the new input. This cycle will continue until the winner is the same form as the input – a step which is also called as convergence. This success in choosing the right form as the final winner is all thanks to the gradualness of Serial OT and the Prec constraint, which disqualifies the threatening competing forms Parallel OT was not able to shed out of the competition. 6. Conclusion Optimality Theory-Candidate Chains proves to be more successful in the case of opacity observed in Kermanshahi Persian progressive prefix than the Parallel version of OT, where the process of choosing the final winner is not gradual and the intermediate forms are not taken into account due to the Generator's permission to produce candidates with any number of differences compared to the input. The gradual nature of OT-CC along with the Prec constraint leads to the choice of the right candidate as the winner. The following tableau, also known as Harmonic Improvement tableau, shows how the winners of the later rounds incur less threatening violations. Tableau 5 The Harmonic Improvement in [mo.xɑm] Ident (r) Max (r) No-Codaprog Prec(Id,Max) Complex-Syll Align-l(r) * a. mix.wɑm * * b. mox.wɑm * c. mo.xɑm In the tableau above, the candidates are the winners of each step of derivation, with each being more harmonic – incurring fewer violations to the higher-ranking constraints – than the previous candidate. طی فرایند ساخت وجه استمراری/ اخباری در گویش فارسی کرمانشاهی، افزودن پیشوند فعلی /mi-/ به ستاک فعلی دارای آوای گرد، سبب گرد شدن واکۀ پیشوند می‏شود. این نوع همگونی در مواردی که واکه یا همخوان گرد در ستاک فعلی نباشد، رخ نمی‏دهد. بااین‏حال، در فارسی کرمانشاهی صورت فعلی [mo.xɑm] وجود ‏دارد، که در آن واکۀ پیشوند ظاهراً بدون وجود هیچ انگیزه‏ای گرد شده است. این وضعیت گونه‏ای از تیرگی واج‌شناختی است. در این پژوهش به بررسی نقش این پدیده در تغییر بازنمایی آوایی و واجی پیشوند استمراری در گویش فارسی کرمانشاهی برمبنای نظریۀ بهینگی ـ زنجیره‏های گزینه‏ای (McCarthy, 2007) که نسخه‏ای از نظریه بهینگی متوالی است، پرداخته‏ایم. داده‏های این تحقیق از طریق گفت‌وگو با گویشوران گویش فارسی کرمانشاهی، در دو ردۀ سنی بالای پنجاه‏ سال و زیر بیست ‏سال و با اتکا به شم ‏زبانی پژوهشگران بومی، گرد‏آوری شده ‏است. نتایج حاصل از این پژوهش گویای آنند که علت بروز تیرگی در واکه پیشوندِ وجه استمراری در گویش فارسی کرمانشاهی از آن نوع است که در واج‏شناسی اشتقاقی، تحت عنوان تعامل «عکسِ زمینه‏برچینی» مطرح است و نظریۀ بهینگی متوالی در تبیین این تغییر، عملکردی موفق‏تر از نظریۀ بهینگی موازی داشته است.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Word Order Typology of Mixed Turkish-Persian Language in Baft رده‌شناسی ترتیب واژه‌ها در زبان آمیختۀ ترکی ـ فارسی گونۀ بافتی 71 104 7023 10.52547/LRR.13.2.3 FA موسی غنچه پور استادیار گروه آموزش زبان و ادبیات، دانشگاه فرهنگیان، تهران، ایران 0000-0001-9259-3410 Journal Article 1970 01 01 In this article, word order in syntactic structures of the mixed Turkish-Persian language of Baft was studied through the 24 correlation pairs of Dryer (1992, 2009 & 2013) to determine the typology of this language compared to Europe-Asia and world genera. Other purposes of this research were to study the efficiency of Head-Dependent Theory, Branching Direction Theory and Cross-Category Harmony Principle to investigate whether they can explain the typological behavior of this language. The findings showed that this mixed Turkish-Persian language compared to Europe-Asia languages had 16 elements of strong object-verb languages (verb follows object) and 15 elements of verb-object languages (verb precedes object). This language in comparison with world languages also had 15 elements of strong OV languages and 14 elements of strong VO languages. These results prove that this language variety compared to Europe-Asia and world languages corresponds with OV genera. Having the elements of strong VO languages compared to Europe-Asia and world languages indicates that this variety is moving toward the strong VO languages and typologically is not a consistent OV or VO language, but a mixed one and this property is for a broad bilingual social environment. Moreover, the evidence of this language showed that Head-Dependent Theory, Branching Direction Theory and Cross-Category Harmony Principle cannot explain the typological word order behavior of this mixed Turkish-Persian language. 1. Introduction Typology is a branch of linguistics using parameters like word order to discover the shared characteristics of languages and to represent the functional explanations. The purpose of this article is to study the word order in syntactic structures (phrases and clauses) of the mixed Turkish-Persian language of Baft through the 24 correlation pairs of Dryer (1992, 2009 & 2013) to determine the typology of this language compared to Europe-Asia and world genera. This research was to study the efficiency of Head-Dependent Theory, Branching Direction Theory, and Cross-Category Harmony Principle to investigate whether they can explain the typological behavior of this language as well. Moreover, the typological word order of this Turkish- Persian language in comparison with monolingual languages like Turkish and Persian will be clarified. For this purpose, we compared the data of 24 correlation pairs of this language with the corresponding elements in Europe-Asia and world genera. The framework for this study was Dryer (1992), the most comprehensive experimental study regarding word order, correlations, and the number of languages. This database includes 625 languages identified based on genera. 2. Literature Review Greenberg (1963) was the first figure studying word order typology. He presented 45 universals through investigating 30 languages. Then Lehman (1978a) based on the findings of Greenberg (1963) introduced the fundamental principle of placement and reduced his three typological components into two elements including verb and object. Vennemann (1974) indicated the unimportance function of subject in word order typology as well but he used all word order universals of Greenberg (1963) based on categorical analogy. He showed that heads and dependents are placed in the same direction. That is, the dependent was placed before the head or the head was placed before the dependent. He maintained that the dependent was before head in OV languages and head was before dependent in VO languages. Hawkins (1983, p. 116) rejected the word order typology of Greenberg with the help of 236 languages. He based adposition to study word order typology and referred to the importance of frequency and quantity of word order correlations (Song, 2018 p. 237). Dryer (1992) indicated genera and statistical universals compared to the individual languages against Hawkins (1983) who studies for finding universals. Dabir-Moghaddam (2014) studied the word order typology of Farsi, Balochi, Davani, Larestani, Taleshi, Vafsi, Kurdish, Aramaic Laki, Delvari, Nayini, Shahmirzadi and Tati languages based on the correlation components of Dryer (1992). He concluded that the 24 correlational elements of the mentioned languages have been influenced by Persian as the superstratum language having a strong middle verb. The findings of Rezapoor (2015) in Semnani and Rezapoor, E. & Abdollahi (2019) in Sangesari languages compared to Europe-Asia and world languages are strong verb final languages. 3. Methodology The data of this descriptive-analytic research was collected by the researcher as a native speaker and other native speakers by comparing these structures with 24 correlation pairs. After analyzing the clauses and phrases into morphemes, they were transcribed and compared to two columns related to corresponding elements in both Europe- Asia where this variety itself was located, and world genera where all other languages in the world were placed. The correlation pairs are adposition (preposition and postposition) and a noun phrase, noun and relative clause, noun and genitive, adjective and standard in comparative construction, verb and adpositional phrase, verb and manner adverb, copula verb, and predicate, want and verb phrase, adjective and noun, demonstrative and noun, adjective and intensifier, tense/aspect particle and verb, question particle and clause, adverbial subordinator/ subordinate conjunction and clause, article and noun, verb and subject, number and noun, tense-aspect affix and verb stem, noun and possessive affix, the sequence of an auxiliary and content verb, complementizer and sentence, question particle and sentence, verb and object and negative particle and verb. 4. Results The result of data showed that this mixed Turkish-Persian language compared to Europe-Asia languages had 16 elements of strong object-verb languages (verb follows object) and 15 elements of verb-object languages (verb precedes object). This language in comparison with world languages also had 15 elements of strong OV languages and 14 elements of strong VO languages. These results prove that this language variety compared to Europe-Asia and world languages correspond with OV genera. Having the elements of strong VO languages compared to Europe-Asia and world languages indicates that this variety is moving toward the strong VO languages and typologically is not a consistent OV or VO language, but a mixed one and this property is for a broad bilingual social environment. According to the Head- Dependent Theory, languages tend towards one of two ideals: head-initial languages, in which heads consistently precede their dependents, and head-final languages, in which heads consistently follow their dependents. One of the goals of this paper is to investigate this theory based on Turkish- Persian language. The findings showed that this Turkish-Persian variety is a strong OV language. Based on Head-Dependent Theory, it is predicted that heads occur after dependents, but contrary to the prediction of this theory that verb patterners are heads and object patterners are dependents, the relative clause is head and noun is dependent. This finding proves that what HDT predicts is not correct. Moreover, the correlation data of this variety does not prove and explain what Cross-Category Harmony Principle predicts. Based on CCHP, head-initial languages have consistently initial head and head-final languages consistently possess final head, but the correlation pairs of adjective and standard in comparative construction, the order of article and noun, and the order of verb and object in this head-final language showed that the standard in comparative construction, noun, and verb in these pairs are not heads and the structure type determines the head. This finding is consistent with Dryer (1992: 89) that claims that HDT and CCHP in identifying head and dependents are inefficient. Based on the Branching Direction Theory (BDT) of Dryer (1992: 90), languages tend towards one of two ideals: right-branching languages, in which phrasal categories follow nonphrasal categories and left-branching, languages in which phrasal categories precede nonphrasal categories. That is, head-initial languages are right-branching and head-final languages are left-branching. Based on BDT, the Turkish-Persian language is head-final language and therefore it must be left-branching, but its data, specifically the adjective and the standard of construction does not follow this theory. Moreover, the BDT theory cannot predict the correct occurrence of the verb and object correlation pairs. In general, the evidence of this language showed that Head-Dependent Theory, Branching Direction Theory, and Cross-Category Harmony Principle cannot explain the typological word order behavior of this mixed Turkish-Persian language. در این مقاله ترتیب واژه در ساخت‌های نحوی زبانِ آمیختۀ ترکی ـ فارسی گونۀ بافتی با استفاده از 24 مؤلفۀ هم‌بستگی درایر (1992; 2009 & 2013) بررسی شد تا مشخص شود این زبان در مقایسه با گروه‌زبان‌های اروپا ـ آسیا و جهان با چه ردۀ زبانی مطابقت دارد. همچنین، کارایی نظریه‌های هسته ـ وابسته، سوی انشعاب و اصل توازن فرامقوله‌ای در تبیین رفتار رده‌شناختی این گونۀ زبانی مطالعه شد. یافته‌ها نشان داد که زبانِ آمیختۀ ترکی ـ فارسی در‌مقایسه‌با زبان‌های اروپا ـ آسیا دارای شانزده مؤلفه از مؤلفه‌های زبان‌های فعل‌پایانی قوی (فعل پس از مفعول) و پانزده مؤلفه از مؤلفه‌های فعل‌میانی قوی (فعل پیش از مفعول) است. همچنین، این زبان در‌مقایسه‌با زبان‌های جهان برخوردار از پانزده مؤلفه از مؤلفه‌های گروه‌زبان‌های فعل‌پایانی قوی و چهارده مؤلفه از مؤلفه‌های گروه‌زبان‌های فعل‌میانی قوی است. این یافته‌ها تأییدی است بر اینکه این گونۀ زبانی در مقایسه با زبان‌های اروپا ـ آسیا و جهان، با گروه‌زبان‌های فعل‌پایانی قوی مطابقت دارد. دارا بودن مؤلفه‌های زبان‌های فعل‌میانی قوی در مقایسه با زبان‌های اروپا ـ آسیا و جهان نیز مؤید آن است که این گونۀ زبانی در حال حرکت به سوی زبان‌های فعل‌میانی قوی است و به‌لحاظ رده‌شناسی زبانی، یکدست هسته‌پایانی و یا هسته‌میانی نیست، بلکه زبانی آمیخته است و این آمیختگی به‌سبب محیط اجتماعی است که دوزبانگی گسترده در آن رایج است. افزون‌بر‌این، نمونه‌های این گونۀ زبانی نشان داد که نظریه‌های هسته ـ وابسته، سوی انشعاب و اصل توازن فرامقوله‌ای تبیین‌کنندۀ رفتار رده‌شناختی زبان آمیختۀ ترکی‌ ـ فارسی نیست.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7023_b47767f992ce8624345aca182b76b202.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Effect of Voicing on Constriction Duration, Voice Duration and Vowel Duration in Stop and Fricative Consonants of Turkish Language in Tabrizi Dialect تأثیر واکداری بر طول گیرش، طول واک و طول واکه در همخوان‌های انسدادی و سایشی زبان ترکی گونۀ تبریزی 105 136 7024 10.52547/LRR.13.2.4 FA رعنا حسین پور دمیرچیان دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران. 0000-0001-8879-6573 ماندانا نوربخش دانشیار گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-2554-0727 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Voicing is one of the most important phonological features in distinguishing consonants in many languages. In this study, we investigated the temporal parameters such as constriction duration, voice duration, and vowel duration in stop and fricative consonants of Azeri Turkish language in intervocalic position (VCV). The main purpose of this study is to study stop and fricative consonants in Tabrizi dialect. An attempt was made to answer the question of how the voicing of stop and fricative consonants of Turkish language affects the temporal parameters. Twelve selected words of Turkish common words were repeated by fourteen Tabrizi speakers. They were produced three times in citation form. The results showed that temporal parameters are considered as potential cues in distinguishing voiced and voiceless Turkish consonants. The results related to stop consonants also showed that only voice duration and vowel duration were effective in the voicing contrast. The results for the closure duration confirmed that there is no significant difference between voiced and voiceless stops and this cue can not be used as a distinguishing cue to voicing in Azeri Turkish stops. 1. Introduction Glottis and its condition is one aspect of describing consonants; So the vibration in vocal cords during consonant production produces voiced sounds unless the produced sound is voiceless. Voicing is one of the phonological features that has been discussed in most languages and has certain acoustic cues. Some of these cues are defined as temporal features, which include constriction duration, voice duration, and the preceding vowel duration. In other words, these temporal features are considered cues for distinguishing obstruent consonants. Steriade (1997, pp. 6-7) offers a list of cues to voicing and their distribution and believes that changing stop consonants’ position in a syllable can cause a change in the number of voicing cues. closure duration and closure voicing are two essential cues to study stop consonants voicing. Moreover, there are sixteen acoustic features classified into three groups including pre-closure, closure, and post-closure features (Lisker, 1986). Lisker (1986) argues that these features are potentially perceptual cues to voicing distinction in the intervocalic position. This means that closure duration and voice duration are associated with closure, and vowel duration relates to pre-closure features. Turkish language is one of the most common languages in the Altaic language family which has the largest number of speakers (Crystal, 1987, p. 307). The southwestern branch is one of the main branches of Turkish language, which includes Azerbaijani, Turkish, and Turkmen (Hayat, 2001, p. 8). In general, the Turkish language of Azerbaijan can be divided into two dialects: the northern dialect in the Republic of Azerbaijan and the southern dialect in Iranian Azerbaijan (Johanson, 1998). Among the common non-Persian languages in Iran, Azerbaijani Turkish with 15 to 20 million native speakers has the highest number of speakers (Crystal, 2010) and also among 26 types of Azeri dialects, Baku, Guba, Lankaran, Shirvan, and Tabrizi dialects are common in East Azarbaijan region (Heyat, 2001). This language is agglutinative and has 24 consonants and 9 vowels. Vowels are /ɑ, ɯ, o, u, æ, e, i , œ, y/. Also out of 24 consonants, there are 6 stop consonants / b, p, d, t, ɡ, ɟ / and 9 fricative consonants /f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, x, ɣ, h/ in this language. Additionally, there are two other stops /c/ and /k/ that are used only in the Southern dialect and in loan words (Ghaffarvand Mokri and Warner, 1396). The main purpose of this study is to examine stop and fricative consonants of Azeri Turkish in the Tabrizi dialect, acoustically. So that these consonants will be evaluated by measuring acoustic cues such as closure duration, voice duration, and vowel duration in intervocalic position. This is an experimental study that will be performed by designing a production test. In this study, we aim at providing an answer to the following question: whether voicing has a significant effect on the duration of acoustic cues in stop and fricative consonants in Azeri Turkish language? We assume that the duration of above-mentioned cues is significantly influenced by voicing feature of obstruents. 2. Literature Review There are several studies done on many languages evaluating acoustic cues in obstruent consonants such as stop closure duration (Shen et al., 1987; Lisker, 1957; Nikrahi, 2012; Razavi Najafabadi & Nourbakhsh, 2013), fricative constriction duration (Jongman, 2000; Nartey, 1982; Klatt, 1976; Baum &Blumstein, 1987; Rahimi, 2013), affricate closure and frication duration (Hosseinpoor Damirchan & Nourbahsh, 2021), voice onset time (Jahan, 2009; Ünal-Lugacev et al, 2018) and vowel duration ( Ladefoged, 2006, p. 58; Chen, 1970; Raphael, 1972; Warren & Marselen-Wilson, 1989). 3. Methodology Fourteen Azeri native speakers participated in the production experiment. Twelve Turkish words containing 4 stops /d, t, b, p/ and 8 fricatives /z, s, ʒ, ʃ, ɣ, x, v, f/ were produced in the intervocalic position between vowels /ɑ/. Participants were in a quiet room and produced syllables three times in citation form and also they were asked to repeat with a short interval between each word. Thus, 504 data were obtained (14 speakers × 12 words × 3 repetitions). Praat voice Analysis Software Version 6 .1. 30 were used for acoustic analysis of data. All measurements were done manually considering both waveforms and spectrograms. Also, SPSS software Version 23 was employed for statistical analysis. 4. Results 4-1. Stop closure duration and Frication duration Closure duration in stop consonants provides two main acoustic information associated with the voicing feature. Examining this cue showed that the length of closure is not significantly longer in viceless stops than voiced (p ≥0.05). The mean closure duration is 93.87 and 98.86 for voiced and voiceless stops respectively. Therefore, closure duration can not be considered a proper acoustic cue to contrast voicing in Azeri Turkish stops. The results of frication length measurement showed that voiceless fricatives (mean duration: 161.7) are longer than voiced fricatives (mean duration: 91.58). Mean and standard deviation are shown in table 2 for each fricative. The longer duration of voiceless fricatives is significant (p ≤ 0.05) and leads to the result that length of frication is an important cue to fricatives voicing. Table 1 shows descriptive statistics of stops closure duration and fricative constriction duration. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of constriction duration in stops and fricatives Mean SD Min Max Stop voiced 93.87 16.88 58 145 voiceless 98.86 23.26 48 148 fricatives voiced 91.58 24.38 50 166 voiceless 161.7 25.54 104 218 4-2. Stop and fricative voice duration Mean and standard deviation are shown in table 2 for stop and fricative consonants. The average voice duration obtained for voiced stops is 57.79 which is longer than voice length in voiceless stops with 25.13, therefore the significant difference between voiced and voiceless stops (p ≤ 0.05) demonstrates that voice length is the main cue to voicing recognition. The overall average voice duration for voiced fricatives is longer than the voiceless with 86.33 and 29.93 respectively. In other words, voiceless fricatives have shorter voice length and this difference is considerably significant (p ≤ 0.05). Thus, voice duration is considered an important cue to voicing category of fricatives. Table 2. Descriptive statistics of voice duration in stops and fricatives Mean SD Min Max Stop voiced 57.79 27.37 10 112 voiceless 25.13 11.45 7 63 fricatives voiced 86.33 26.32 17 166 voiceless 29.93 10.89 10 80 4-3. Vowel duration preceding stops and fricatives Mean and standard deviation of vowel length before stops and fricatives are shown in table 3 and indicate that length of vowel before voiced consonants are longer than voiceless ones. The significant difference of voiced and voiceless stops and fricatives (p ≤ 0.05) shows that the duration of vowel precesing obstruens is an essential cue to the voicing distinction. Table 3 Descriptive statistics of vowel duration before stops and fricatives Mean SD Min Max Stop voiced 114.87 23.43 60 184 voiceless 96.94 23.02 59 170 fricatives voiced 135.74 32.34 76 234 voiceless 101.33 23.11 53 159 6. Conclusion In this study, three acoustic cues in stop and fricative consonants voicing were investigated for speech production in Azeri Turkish language spoken in Tabriz. Except for stop closure duration, the other cues showed significant differences between voiced and voiceless obstruents. Hence, frication duration, voice duration, and vowel duration before obstruents are potential cues to voicing distinction in Turkish language in Tabrizi dialect. واک‏داری یکی از مشخصه‏های صوت‏شناختی مهم در تمایز همخوان‏ها در بسیاری از زبان‏ها به‌شمار می‏آید. در این پژوهش به مطالعۀ صوت‏شناختی همخوان‏های سایشی و انسدادی زبان ترکی تبریزی پرداخته شد. بدین منظور پارامترهای زمان بنیان ازقبیل طول گیرش، طول واک در منطقۀ گرفتگی و طول واکه قبل از همخوان‏های انسدادی و سایشی زبان ترکی آذری در جایگاه بین دو واکه (VCV) سنجیده شد. در پژوهش حاضر تلاش شد تا به این پرسش پاسخ داده شود که چگونه تمایز واک‏داری همخوان‏های انسدادی و سایشی زبان ترکی بر پارامترهای زمانی تأثیر می‏گذارد. چهارده گویشور ترک‌زبان تبریزی دوازده کلمۀ منتخب از واژه‏های رایج در زبان ترکی آذری را به‌صورت تک‌کلمه سه بار تکرار کردند. نتایج تحقیق نشان می‏دهد که هر سه پارامتر زمانی به‌عنوان سرنخ‏های بالقوه در ایجاد تمایز همخوان‏های سایشی واک‏دار و بی‏واک این زبان محسوب می‏شوند. نتایج مرتبط با همخوان‏های انسدادی نیز حاکی از آن است که تنها دو پارامتر طول واکه و طول واک را می‏توان در تمایز واک‏داری همخوان‏های انسدادی زبان ترکی درنظر گرفت. نتایج حاصل برای طول بست این همخوان‏ها ثابت کرد که اختلاف معناداری بین طول بست انسدادی‏های واک‏دار و بی‏واک وجود ندارد و این پارامتر را نمی‏توان یک سرنخ تمایزدهندۀ واک‏داری در انسدادی‏های زبان ترکی آذری برشمرد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7024_006c64491cb8acf2092ce0e0341797fe.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Middle Voice in Persian: A Minimalist Approach جهت میانه در زبان فارسی: رویکردی کمینه‌گرا 139 162 7025 10.52547/LRR.13.2.5 FA محمد دبیر مقدم استاد گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران مهسا پهلوان زاده فینی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 The purpose of this study is to investigate the syntactic merging process of the middle constructions in Persian within the minimalist framework proposed by Bowers (2010, 2018). Within this framework, Bowers analyzed the merging of active, middle and passive sentences based on the two categories of 'Predication' and 'Transitivity'. It is worth mentioning that in his latest works, Bowers (2010, 2018) has replaced the transitive phrase (TrP) by 'voice' with its core features intact. The voice category used in Bowers (2010) is a generalization of the transitivity category previously proposed by Bowers (2002). In general, this category enters into a "matching relationship" with objects. Bowers (2018) in his approach calls this node a role of "transitive voice" which is represented as (Vtr). In fact, Bowers goes back from a more general interpretation of this node to a more detailed one. These changes are merely in the name of syntactic nodes and have no effect on the syntactic properties of transitive nodes, because it is evident that Bowers still knows transitive active constructions, middles and passives, including the transitivity category, and unergative and unaccusative constructions without this category According to the theoretical framework of the Minimalist Program is there any evidence of the middle voice found in the contemporary Persian? 2. In case it is proven, as proposed by Bowers, does the process of syntactic merging of middle construction follow ‘the universal order of merge’? 3. What is the distinction between middle, unaccusative and unergative constructions in Persian? Based on the mentioned questions, these hypotheses can be made: 1. although the active and passive constructions are common in Persian, there might be also some evidence for the middle voice. 2. The process of middle formation in Persian follows the universal order of merge. 3. Middle, unaccusative and unergative constructions are different in terms of the merging process. Regarding middle construction, the limited number of studies by Iranian linguists has focused on the presence or absence of this construction in Persian. For example, Jabbari (2003), by accepting the existence of middle construction in Persian, has used ‘intransitive construction’, instead of the term ‘middle construction’. He considers it as a construction between active and passive. He claims that although these verbs are formally similar to active verbs, semantically they are comparable to passive verbs. On the other hand, Rasekhmahand (2007) assumes that middle construction cannot be attested as a ‘voice’ in Persian and it is not at all comparable to active and passive constructions. He referred to it as ‘inchoative construction’ which is the reverse of causative sentences. The data of the present study are collected from Dadegan website (The corpus of syntactic dependency of Persian language). For a better illustration, tree diagrams of Minimalist Program have been used during the data analysis. The findings of the present paper confirm the hypothesis on the existence of middle voice in Persian. Moreover, the universal order in the process of merging middle constructions (Bowers, 2010, 2018) has been attested. According to this arrangement, the merging position of the subject of the verb, which holds the semantic role of 'agent', is the lowest position in the diagram and the other verb arguments are merged subsequently, based on a determined order. Representation of verb arguments in the form of syntactic nodes is the innovative aspect of this research within the framework of the Minimalist Program. پژوهش حاضر با موضوع «جهت میانه در زبان فارسی» با به‌کارگیری آرای موجود در رویکرد کمینه‌گرای بوورز (2010, 2018) شکل گرفته ‌است. این رویکرد از تازه‌ترین تعدیل‌های شکل‌گرفته در چارچوب برنامه کمینه‌گراست که در آن کاستی‌های موجود در نظریات پیشین ازمیان رفته است و مهم‌ترین دستاورد آن ارائه ترتیب جهانی ادغام است؛ ترتیبی که از منظر بوورز با کمک آن می‌توان فرایند ادغام نحوی در زبان‌های گوناگون را سامان‌دهی کرد. پیش‌تر بوورز (2002) در چارچوب برنامه کمینه‌گرا تحلیل ساخت‌های متعدی معلوم، میانه و مجهول را با استفاده از دو مقوله «اِسناد» و «گذرایی» ممکن می‌دانست. با حذف گره گذرایی از تحلیل‌های متأخر وی و نیز جایگزین شدن مقوله نقشی «جهت»، ویژگی‌های هسته این گروه عامل تمایز چنین ساخت‌هایی است. پژوهش حاضر ضمن پذیرش کارآمدی رویکرد بوورز، به مقایسه «جهت میانه» در زبان فارسی و ساخت‌های تک‌موضوعی نامفعولی و ناکُنایی پرداخته است. در این مقاله با استناد به بررسی‌های نحوی صورت‌گرفته بر روی داده‌های مستخرج از «پایگاه اینترنتی دادگان: پیکره وابستگی نحوی زبان فارسی» نشان خواهیم داد که نه‌تنها در زبان فارسی امروز جهت فعل «میانه» کاربرد دارد، بلکه ترتیب جهانی مطرح‌شده توسط بوورز در فرایند ادغام ساخت‌های نحوی موسوم به «ترتیب جهانی ادغام» در زبان فارسی نیز رعایت می‌شود. مطابق با چنین ترتیبی جایگاه ادغام موضوع فعل با نقش معنایی کنش‌گر پایین‌ترین جایگاه در نمودارهای درختی خواهد بود و سایر موضوع‌های فعل پس از گروه کنش‌گر و با ترتیب ویژه‌ای ادغام می‌شوند. تحلیل شیوه ادغام موضوع‌های فعل در قالب گِره‌های نحوی و نیز بازنمایی شیوه ادغام نحوی سه ساخت تک‌موضوعی میانه، نامفعولی و ناکنایی در زبان فارسی دستاوردهای این پژوهش در چارچوب برنامه کمینه‌گراست.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7025_cf0d02ec99e61a64137b8a2c3b03e030.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Effect of Grammatical Weight on Postposing in Persian تأثیر وزن دستوری بر پسایندسازی در زبان فارسی 163 187 7026 10.52547/LRR.13.2.6 FA الهام ایزدی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه بوعلی‌سینا، همدان، ایران 0000-0001-9353-1983 محمد راسخ مهند استاد گروه زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه بوعلی‌سینا، همدان، ایران 0000-0002-3109-7787 Journal Article 1970 01 01 This paper aims to investigate postposing in Modern spoken Persian. Persian is a verb-final language; however, some constituents frequently follow the verb and appear in the post - verbal domain. Among the factors motivating this phenomenon, one of them is grammatical weight. The universal tendency proposed by typologists is the “short-before-long principle”; locating the heavy constituents after the light ones in order to ease the process of production and comprehension. Some studies advocate the position of long constituents before short ones in verb-final languages like Japanese and Korean. Based on the Persian spoken corpus, this research analyzes the postposed constituents according to their grammatical weight. It is observed that the heavier constituents are postposed more easily compared with the light ones; supporting the universal trend of placing heavy constituents after the light ones. 1. Introduction In most grammatical and linguistic studies, the order of the unmarked word order in Persian has been considered "subject-object-verb". But in Persian sentences, there are other sequences in which the above-mentioned order is not necessarily observed. One of these marked sequences is the presence of some constituents in the postposed position. This movement also called postposing, is a phenomenon that occurs mostly in the spoken form of Persian. The main hypothesis of this study is that the weight of structures affects postposing and heavier structures are more liked than lighter structures, and therefore the Persian language puts heavy structures in the postposed position; after light structures. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to examine natural data and the corpus of this research is spoken corpus of Persian. Research Question(s) Does grammatical weight affect postposing in Persian? Which constituent comes first? Heavy before light or light before heavy? 2. Literature Review Reviewing previous studies, we can say that there are three types of conclusions about the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents in Persian: the group that considers weight ineffective in word order (Frommer 1981; Ma’aref and Mehdizadeh, 1397). The second group has studied weight in preposed constituents and considers it effective. In their view, heavy structures take precedence over light constituents (Faghiri & Samvelian 2014, 2020). The third group has studied the postposed constituents and concluded that weight is effective in the postposing and heavier constituents are moved more easily and frequently and after the constituents (Alaei et al. 1396, 1397; Rasekh Mohanand et al., 1392, 2016). None of the above studies that have utilized the natural spoken corpus have not specifically focused on postposing. The present study, considering the spoken corpus of Persian, investigates the effect of weight on the rearrangement of constituents. 3. Methodology In the present study, in order to study natural data from Persian, the spoken corpus has been used. ELAN software version 5.7.0 was used to prepare spoken corpus. This software is a tool for producing natural language data and is a tool used in the project of a spoken corpus with the name HAMBAM. 4. Results Here Finally, it can be said that the results of this study are a confirmation of the researches of Alaei et al. (1396, 1397) and Rasekh Mohannad (1396) who have emphasized the effect of weight and more probability of moving heavy constituents to the end of the sentence. Also, according to Hawkins (1994), the main reason for the postposing and tendency of Persian to choose a heavy constituent after a light constituent can be considered as facilitating sentence comprehension and processing. The placement of the verb as the semantic core of the sentence before the heavy constituents makes it possible to understand the meaning of the sentence faster and thus convey the message. 5. Discussion In summary, this study, considering the principle of "heavy constituents before light constituents " in four areas, confirms that in Persian, among the constituents that have become obsolete, and the constituents that are in the unstable position. The signs are located, four constituents follow this principle; In contrast to other constituents, with a slight difference, they show a tendency contrary to this principle. 6. Conclusion We can examine the hypothesis of the present paper. In this study, the main hypothesis was that the proposed constituents are heavier than their corresponding pairs in the unmarked state. If this hypothesis is confirmed, at least it can be said that the Persian language puts heavier constituents in place after the verb, in other words, the principle of light structure is observed before the heavy structure. Among the three types of views on the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents in Persian mentioned, it can be said that the view that considers the effect of weight on the arrangement of constituents is acceptable. There is sufficient evidence for this tendency in the constituents of the subject, predicate, time, and indirect object, but the evidence related to direct object, place constituents, and manner constituents do not confirm this finding. هدف این پژوهش بررسی تأثیر وزن دستوری بر پسایندسازی سازه‏های مختلف در زبان فارسی معاصر گفتاری است. با اینکه زبان فارسی زبانی فعل‏پایان است، اما در موارد متعددی برخی سازه‏ها در جایگاه پس از فعل قرار می‏گیرند و اصطلاحاً پسایند می‏شوند. یکی از عواملی که در این جابه‏جایی تأثیرگذار است، وزن دستوری است. منظور از وزن دستوری تعداد کلمات درون هر سازه است. در مطالعات رده‏شناسی عنوان شده است که در اکثر زبان‏های جهان گرایش کلی به قرار دادن سازه سبک قبل از سازه سنگین است که به تسهیل در تولید و درک گفتار کمک می‏کند. اما مطالعاتی نیز صورت گرفته است که در زبان‏های فعل‏پایانی مانند ژاپنی و کره‏ای، سازه‏های سنگین پیش از سازه‏های سبک قرار می‏گیرند. درواقع دو نوع رده از این حیث در زبان‏های جهان وجود دارد. در این پژوهش، با تکیه بر پیکره گفتاری زبان فارسی، به بررسی تأثیر وزن دستوری بر سازه‏های پسایند‏شده در زبان فارسی پرداخته‏ایم. این مطالعه نشان می‏دهد در زبان فارسی، سازه‏های سنگین بیش از سازه‏های سبک در جایگاه پس از فعل قرار می‏گیرند. به عبارتی فارسی از این حیث در جایگاه پس از فعل، مانند زبان‌های فعل‏پایانی همچون کره‏ای و ژاپنی نیست. درمورد چهار سازه مفعول غیرمستقیم، مسند، فاعل و قید مکان، اصل سازه سنگین پس از سازه سبک دیده می‏شود و البته موارد محدودی هم وجود دارد که این گرایش در آن‌ها رعایت نشده است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7026_5dca4c6b9e244d24a30b4c45601d9720.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Investigating Lexical Diversity & Lexical Density In Narrations Of 4-8 Year Old Persian Language Children Who Stutter And Who Don't Stutter بررسی تنوع و تراکم واژگانی در روایت‌های داستانی کودکان با و بدون لکنت 4 تا 8 سالۀ فارسی‌زبان 189 218 7027 10.52547/LRR.13.2.7 FA مهدیه شیرج دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد زبان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران اتوسا رستم بیک تفرشی استادیار زبان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران. 0000-0003-4820-0709 Journal Article 1970 01 01 One of the fields that has been influenced by the linguistic methodology, and the results of the researches in the interdisciplinary fileds of psycholinguistics and clinical linguistics is the study of speech disorders, like stuttering. Stuttering is a speech disorder characterized by repetition of sounds, syllables, or words; prolongation of sounds; and interruptions in speech known as blocks. An individual who stutters exactly knows what he or she would like to say, but has trouble producing a normal flow of speech. In recent years many studies have examined whether there is a relationship between stuttering and linguistic features of the speech of those who stutter. This study is focused on the lexical domain, namely the lexical density, and lexical diversity that can be considered as the lexical richness. Lexical diversity is usually defined as the range and variety of vocabulary in a language sample. Lexical density provides a measure of the proportion of lexical items (i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives and some adverbs) and function words in a language sample. Therefore, this study is aimed at comparing the lexical density and diversity in the narrations of children who stutter (CWS) (aged between 4 to 8 years), and children who do not stutter (CWNS) in the control group. Therefore, it investigates whether children who stutter have limited verbal skills compared to children who do not stutter. Since some theories claim that CWS have poorer language skills, comparing their linguistic performance in different domains to their fluent peers can contribute to the studies in this field through shedding light on the weak and strong points of these children’s language abilities. The sample consists of the narrations of 14 children who stutter (CWS) classified into two age groups: (4-6 and 6-8), and 14 age-matched children who do not stutter (CWNS) as the control group selected through convenience sampling method. They have been asked to narrate a wordless picture book, “Frog where are you?” (Meyer, 1969), and their narrations have been analyzed, and compared according to the lexical density and diversity between children who stutter, and the children in the control group, and also between the two age groups. The percentage of the use of different words in different grammatical classes, i.e. noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and different function words in their narrations was also compared between the groups. Lexical diversity was analyzed through computing MSTTR (Mean Segmental Type-Token Ratio) by Word Smith 6. To measure lexical density, Lexical and functional words in the children’s narrations were counted, and classified. The results were compared between the experimental group and control group in different age groups. SPSS 21 was used to test the significance of the differences observed between the groups. The results revealed that CWNS demonstrated more lexical diversity compared to CWS, but the difference was not significant. CWS used more content words and less function words than CWNS in their narrations and the difference is statistically significant. Comparing different grammatical classes showed that CWS narrations contained more nouns than CWNS narrations, whereas CWNS have used more verbs, adjectives and adverbs. However, the difference in the percentage of adverb usage was the only statistically significant item. 1. Introduction Understanding the relationship between fluency and language skills has been an area of focus in many studies. Many researches has examined whether the language abilities of children who stutter (CWS) are equivalent to those of children who do not (CWNS). Two of these language abilities in lexical domain are lexical diversity and lexical density which are aspects of a greater concept: lexical richness. Lexical diversity is usually defined as the range and variety of vocabulary in a language sample. Lexical density provides a measure of the proportion of lexical items (i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives and some adverbs) and function words in a language sample. Therefore, the current study is aimed to answer these questions using narrative discourse: How do 4 to 8 year old CWS compare to peers in their lexical diversity? What is the difference between 4 to 8 year old CWS and CWNS in their lexical density? Based on Demands and capacities theory (Neilson & Neilson, 1987; Starkweather, 1987), that predicts that fluency breaks down when communication demands exceed individual capacities, the hypothesis of this study is vocabulary skills are weaker in CWS compared to peers. 2. Methodology Participants: participants were14 CWS classified into two age groups: (4-6 and 6-8), and 14 age-matched CWNS as the control group selected through convenience sampling method (gender was not matched). None of the children had suspected any other language disorders and displayed typical social-emotional development, normal hearing ability and no neurological problems, according to speesh therapists reports. Data Collection: Samples were elicited by having children construct a story that correspounded to a wordless picture story, Frog where are you? (Mayer, 1969) with 29 pictures. The reason for chosing narrative task was narration often contains more complex language than conversation because speakers use more adverbial clauses and elaborated noun phrases to tie multiple characters and actions together,so given better samples for lexical density. Data Analysis: Each participant’s narration were audio-recorded and transcribed by researchers. Each word in samples was labled based on whether it is a content or function word. Content words was categorised as noun, verb, adjective and adverb. Function words consisted: prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, articles, object marker, determiners and auxiliary verbs. Number of total words, number and frequency percentage of total content words, total function words, nouns, verbs, adjectivse and adverbs were calculated for each particapnt sample. For assessing lexical diversity, number of unique word roots dividing by the number of total words in samples of total narratives of 4-6 and 6-8 year old children in each group (CWS and CWNS) calculated by WordSmith (V6) software. MSTTR (Mean Segmental type-token ratio) algorithm is used in WordSmith which calculates type-token ratio in samples with defference size. SPSS software (V21) and nonparametric tests Mann–Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis used to conduct statistical analyses. 3. Results The results revealed that CWNS demonstrated more lexical diversity compared to CWS, but the difference was not significant. CWS used more content words and less function words than CWNS in their narrations and the difference is statistically significant. Comparing different grammatical classes showed that CWS narratives contained more nouns than CWNS narrations, whereas CWNS have used more verbs, adjectives and adverbs. However, the difference in the percentage of adverb usage was the only statistically significant item. 4. Conclusion The findings suggest some subtle level of lexical skills like using divers words in length, phonological or phonetic complexity and other linguistic factors in CWS. It seems their linguistic capacities in producing fluent speech isn't less than communicative demands. Also some theories like EXPLAN predicts function words are more likely to be stuttered in children compared to content words, so less using of function words in CWS can be considered as an avoidance behaviour. As well as eliminating adverbs that are adjunct can be a strategy to avoid words that probably produced stuttered. برخی محققان بر این باورند مهارت‌های زبانی کودکان دارای لکنت کم‌تر از همسالان بدون لکنت آن‌ها است. تنوع و تراکم واژگانی دو ویژگی زبانی هستند که مهارت‌های واژگانی کاربران زبان را نشان می‌دهند. هدف از این پژوهش، مقایسۀ این دو متغیر در روایت‌های داستانی کودکان با و بی‌لکنت 4-8 سالۀ فارسی‌زبان است. 14 کودک دارای لکنت (7 کودک 4-6 ساله، 7 کودک 6-8 ساله) که در بهار سال 1399 با مراجعه به کلینیک‌های خصوصی گفتاردرمانی شهر تهران انتخاب شدند و 14 کودک همتای سنی آن‌ها که به شیوۀ نمونه‌گیری در دسترس انتخاب شدند، جامعۀ آماری این پژوهش را تشکیل داده‌اند. ابزار پژوهش یک داستان مصور بدون کلام است. تنوع واژگانی با استفاده از مقیاس MSTTR محاسبه شده است. نسبت نوع به نمونه، درصد استفاده از واژ‌ه‌های محتوایی و نقشی و فراوانی استفاده از طبقات دستوریِ واژه‌های محتوایی درمجموع روایت‌های کودکان 4-6 ساله و 6-8 سالۀ دو گروه محاسبه و موردمقایسه قرار گرفته است. یافته‌‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد تنوع واژگانی در کودکان بدون لکنت بیشتر از کودکان با لکنت است، اما تفاوت به‌لحاظ آماری معنادار نیست. کودکان دارای لکنت نسبت‌به گروه کنترل واژه‌های محتوایی بیشتری به‌کار برده‌اند که تفاوت آن در گروه سنی 6-8 سال و مجموع آزمودنی‌ها معنادار است. درمجموع کاربرد فعل، صفت و قید در گفتار کودکان بدون لکنت و استفاده از اسم در کودکان دارای لکنت بیشتر دیده می‌شود که در این میان تنها تفاوت درصد استفاده از قید معنادار است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7027_313f422ac583444ba6045cd122653b0e.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 A Semantic and Corpus-based Study of negative prefixes Â»na Â« and Â»bi Â« in Persian: Lieber's lexical- semantic approach بررسی معنایی پیشوندهای منفی‌ساز «نا» و «بی» در زبان فارسی رویکرد معنایی - واژگانی لیبر 219 246 7028 10.52547/LRR.13.2.8 FA جلال رحیمیان استاد گروه زبان‌‌شناسی دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران شیوا احمدی مدرس دانشگاه بینالمللی امام خمینی (ره)، قزوین، ایران. فاطمه فروغان گرانسایه دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران Journal Article 1970 01 01 The present sturdy studies the semantic function negative prefixes »na « and »bi « in Persian. The founder of this approach using six semantic features, studies semantic function of morphological items, including affixes and their function in the processes of compounding, derivation and conversion. In the present research, data which is collected from the second version of" Hamshahri" corpus and polysemy of prefixes »na «and »bi «has been studied according to the type and meaning of stem. analyzing data suggests that different meanings of prefix » na «are due to co- indexing principle. This principle, can't explain the negative meaning in some cases and for the elaboration of negative meaning in these cases we need to put away the principle and pay attention to semantic features of stem; although this issue is not correct about prefix »bi «and we can explain all negative meanings conveyed by this affix. Also, it was shown that negative prefixes »bi « and »na « are adjective maker; except, in some small amount of cases. Introduction Persian uses derivation process (for instance affixation) for making new words. This process has e close relation with semantics; it means that affixation adds a meaning to the meaning of derived word or it can even make a new word. It is possible that in derived words polysemy could be found. Polysemy is one the important issues in semantics and lexical relations and it happens when a word or morpheme has more than one meaning which are related to each other. Lieber (2004) introduced lexical- semantic approach to study morphological meaning and focused on the semantic effects of compounding, derivation and conversion instead of the meaning of words. Lieber (2004) had a different perspective towards affixes and tried to focus on semantic features of affixes to understand their semantic roles. It was shown that affixes have semantic content and semantic skeleton; while they have less semantic body. The present paper is a corpus-based study of prefixes "na and bi" according to Lieber (2004) approach. These prefixes are compared according to the negative meaning they make. A corpus- based study can show tokens which don’t have high frequency but they exist in the language; also it can provide examples of target words in real language and context. Furthermore it is possible for researcher to find tokens which are not mentioned in dictionary and are used in language because of users' creativity; this is one the most significant feature of corpus-based studies which shows its priority upon dictionary studies. Lieber (2004) introduces co-indexing principle which is used for joining complements together. In complex word semantic skeletons are next to each other which are made following syntactic structures. For making a complex word it is necessary to have some elements in a united referential element. This referential element determines the number of complements in syntax. These referential units are called complement. So indexing is a tool which is used for complements of different units of a complex word (Lieber, 2004, p.45). Lieber believes that affixes, like other linguistic units, have complement which should be co-indexed by one of the stem's complement and affixes can be shown by semantic feature of [-loc]. 1.1 research questions The present paper aims to show different negative meanings represented by two prefixes :na and bi" according to Lieber approach. Writers try to answer these questions: a) can prefixes change part of speech of their stems or no? b) can we explain polysemy of these prefixes using co- indexing principle or thare are other factors which determine their meaning? Literature review Ahmadi Givi and Anvari (2008, p. 185) believe that "na" is a prefix which attaches to the beginning of the simple word and makes a negative adjective. Karimidoostan and Moradi (2012) have studied semantic role of suffixes "ande and ar" in Persian according to Lieber approach. They show that role of these suffixes are not subject or object roles; these suffixes can add some semantic features to the stem and the reason for their polysemy is because of different application of co-indexing principle not their semantic role. Ahangar and Moradi (2016) have studied semantic role of suffix "-h" in Lieber approach and findings show that this suffix had three semantic skeleton. Andreou (2015) has studied semantic features of prefixes "dis and in' in Lieber's approach. Methodology examples of target prefixes are extracted randomly from the tokens which were extracted from Hamshahri corpus. data were extracted from second volume of Hamshahri corpus. this corpus has more than 150 million words which helps researchers to find rare linguistic examples; also it is written ina general contemporary language. All the words containing prefixes "na and bi" were extracted from the corpus. AntConc (Anthony، 2014) was used to extract target data. This software has seven tools among theme concordance tool was used for doing the present study. concordance tool can help researchers to see the target words in context. For finding the words containing target prefixes, in search part of Antconc na* and bi* were typed (separately). Expression "target morpheme*" in this tool means that you are looking for the words which start with target prefixes. In this way it is possible to have some words which are irrelevant to your study; so because of this issue after searching the words by antconc, researcher has to filter data extracted by Antconc in Excel. After filtering process there were 535 words containing "na" and 1139 words containing "bi" were studied. Result According to data it was shown that prefixes " na and bi" are adjective makers and can change stem's part of speech to an adjective; this is the answer of the first question of this paper. Also findings suggest that it is not possible to explain different meanings of target prefixes using co-indexing principle; because prefix "na" doesn’t have any complement to get co-indexed by stem's complement; this prefix can have different semantic skeleton when it joins different stems. About prefix "bi" it was shown that different meanings of this prefix could be explained using co-indexing principle and it has a different semantic skeleton from "na" 's skeleton. جستار حاضر در چارچوب نظریۀ نمود معنایی ـ واژگانی لیبر (2004) به مقایسۀ بررسی نقش معنایی پیشوندهای منفی‌ساز «نا» و «بی» در فارسی می‏پردازد. پایه‌گذار این نظریه با استفاده از شـش مشخصۀ معنـایی، نقش معنایی عناصر واژی ازجمله وندها و عملکـرد آن‌ها را در فرایندهای ترکیب، اشتقاق و تغییر مقوله بررسی می‏کنـد. در این پژوهش داده‌های موردبررسی از نسخۀ 2 پیکرۀ همشهری استخراج شده‌اند و براساس نوع و معنای مقولۀ پایۀ چندمعنایی وندهای «نا» و «بی» موردبررسی قرار گرفته‏اند و با یکدیگر مقایسه می‏شوند. بررسی داده‏های پژوهش حاکی از آن است که معانی متفاوت نفی در کلمات دارای پیشوند «نا» به‌دلیل اصل هم‏نمایگی است. البته، این اصل درمورد برخی از کلمات منفی پاسخ‌گوی معنای حاصل، نیست و برای توجیه معانیِ منفیِ این کلمات باید اصل هم‏نمایگی را کنار بگذاریم و به مشخصه‏های معنایی پایه توجه کنیم؛ البته این موضوع درمورد وند «بی» صدق نمی‏کند و معانی حاصل از آن از طریق اصل هم‏نمایگی توضیح داده می‏شود. همچنین، مشخص شد که هر دوی این وندها به‌جز در مواردی معدود، وندهای صفت‏ساز هستند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7028_36e425d506a15b14cec0d71abfb2ac44.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Effect of Total Image Words on Linguistic Recognition in Children with Borderline Intelligence; A Psycholinguistic Case Study تأثیر تکنیک چهارمرحله‌ای کل‌واژه‌های تصویری بر شناخت زبانی کودکان دیرآموز از دیدگاه‌ روان‌شناسی زبان؛ مطالعۀ موردی 247 284 7029 10.52547/LRR.13.2.9 FA سید محمد حسینی معصوم دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران. محبوبه یار کارشناس ارشد زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-6815-5960 Journal Article 1970 01 01 A borderline intelligence student is the one with basic capability for literacy but of a lower rate and depth in learning compared to their peers. Such students have many difficulties in learning the language, reading and writing. The main purpose of this study is to provide a new solution based on linguistic and psycholinguistic theories to increase the development of language recognition in these children. The technique of total image words was used in an innovative method to manipulate all the senses of the child in his learning. The data of this research have been collected in a field and case study. The case is a 13-year-old borderline intelligence girl living in Mashhad. The suggested training program in this research consists of four stages. The first step is to work on reading by using flashcards of total image words and using the child’s visual and auditory senses. The second step is to emphasize the meaning and semantic chain of the words. In the third stage, we try to strengthen the child’s comprehension with short stories, and in the fourth stage, which is the practical stage, the child acquires the ability to make meaningful sentences and short stories. The test of language development (TOLD 3) was used for pre- and post-tests. The results show that the total image word technique has a positive effect on the language cognitive development of the borderline intelligence student and except in sentence imitation, all other subtests show an improvement of 18 to 66 per cent. 1. Introduction The development is a continuous, multidimensional, and flexible process. One of the most important dimensions in a child’s development is the growth of intelligence and linguistic cognition. Learning is a very complex process that everyone is involved in throughout their lives. But the problem arises when not all children can adapt to traditional learning methods that are less flexible. That is why there is a big gap between their potential and their performance. A Child of borderline intelligence (slow learner) is a student who has the ability to learn the necessary educational skills, but the amount and depth of their learning is less than the average of their peers. Slow learners have many problems learning language and reading and writing. The purpose of this study is to provide a new solution based on theories of linguistics and psycholinguistics to promote the development of language cognition in such children. For this purpose, we tried to engage all the senses of the child in their learning by using the Total Image Words Technique in an innovative way. Research Questions: 1) Can teaching by means of the Total Image Words Technique influence the development of language concepts in slow-learning children? 2) Does teaching by means of the Total Image Words Technique affect the comprehension of slow-learning children? 3) Does teaching by means of the Total Image Words Technique have an effect on promoting the reading and writing skills of slow-learning children? 2. Literature Review One of the important theories used in this research is Gestalt Theory, which is a kind of holistic speculation. According to this theory, in confrontation with various phenomena, the sole nature of the components does not play a role in determining the identity of the collections. In fact, the overall structure and composition of each phenomenon is more than just the sum of its components. This means that each particular part can have its own meaning, but it is the overall configuration that can give it its full meaning. In the Total Image Words Technique, as its name suggests, this theory is well used to teach slow learners, because the child first sees and learns the whole word in the form of text and image and then goes from whole to parts. Since in the Total Image Words Technique, words are placed in the form of categories and frameworks that are related to each other and are in a semantic chain, this technique has benefitted from Fillmore's Frame Semantics and Semantic Chain. Some researchers consider slow learners to be a group between normal and exceptional children. A slow-learning child “is one who has the ability to learn necessary academic skills but at a rate and depth below average of the same age peers" (Suranjana et al., 2015, p. 130). The performance of these students in school has been considered by various researchers. According to Ghafourian (2017, p. 57), the slow student “has the ability to progress in education in a regular school, but performs below the average of their school level.” These children score lower on IQ and academic achievement tests than their peers, but their scores are not low enough to cause them to need special education.” It is at these times that teachers’ creativity and experience can lead to more efficient education. Such teachers can provide more learning opportunities to students with different levels of learning through a variety of teaching methods and multipurpose practices and support the learners to improve their learning capacities. These students are only slightly different from normal students in terms of mental development, so they can study with their peers. Ready (2006) reports that these students have an IQ between 76 and 89 and make up about 18% of the total student population. The most important features of these children are the following: 1. Low accuracy and focus. The solution to this problem is to use appropriate games and exercises and get help from experts. 2. Inattention in doing homework. To solve this problem, the amount of their homework should be reduced and its quality should be given more importance. 3. Lack of sufficient self-confidence. Self-confidence can be increased by giving proper motivation and encouragement. 4. Having poor public relations. 5. Being slow in doing and solving complex and multifaceted problems. 3. Methodology In line with the purpose of the study, the effect of the Total Image Words Technique on a thirteen-year-old girl named Negar in Mashhad, a city in Iran, was investigated. This study was a case study and quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test that was conducted over a period of four months. The Child was initially exposed to Wechsler’s Intelligence Test (EISC) for children and Wineland’s Social Maturity Scale. The results confirmed that the child was slow-learning (having borderline intelligence). The data collection tools used in this research are educational cards that include an image of an object or a phenomenon along with the written form of a word to which an object or phenomenon refers. Language development test (TOLD 3) was also used for pre-test and post-test. 4. Results A TOLD3 pre-test was administered initially and a post-test of the same type was given after the training period. Table 1 presents the results of the paired-sample T-test of the two sets of scores. Table 1. Paired-Sample T-test of standard scores & subtests of TOLD in pre-& Post-tests two-tailed P value df t Paired differences 95% confidence interval of this difference Std. error of Difference Mean upper lower 0.0074 5 4.3386 -1.09 -4.25 0.615 -2.67 Pretest -Posttest Considering the obtained P-value in the table, it can be said with 95% confidence that the difference in the learner's performance before and after the application of the Total Image Words has been significantly different. In Figure 1, the average language skills in the pre-test and post-test are compared. Figure1. Comparison of average language skills in subtests of TOLD in pre-&post-tests In Figure 2, the standard scores of the sub-tests in the pre-test and post-test are compared with each other and shown as a bar graph. Figure 2. Comparison of standard scores in subtests of TOLD in pre-&post-tests 5. Discussion In the following, we present the results of this research according to the skills and seek to analyze the research questions and hypothesis. Spoken Language subtest: This score represents the sum of the standard scores of six subtests that measure semantic and syntactic aspects. For this reason, compared to the other six skills, it gives the best and most comprehensive picture of a person's overall language ability. All language-related features and systems are included in this subtest. In the case of Negar, the test results show an improvement of about 16% in this score, which means that she has been able to improve in all sub-tests during this period. The result of this subtest confirms our research hypothesis about the effect of the Total Image Words Technique on the development of language cognition in slow learners. Semantic skill: Vocabulary is a special semantic ability that is evaluated with the semantic score. Children who are successful in this endeavour know a great deal about words. In this research, because in the second stage, the trainer worked on the characteristics of the meanings and details of the words, the child paid more attention to the different meanings of the word and her vocabulary increased. We see that Negar’s score has grown by about 15%. This means that she was able to better understand the words and their meaning, and this could be a positive answer to our research questions because the first and second research questions asked whether this technique expands the concepts of language and whether late learners’ comprehension is effective or not. The results obtained from this subtest also confirm the objectives of the research. Syntactic skill: Negar has had a growth of about 13% in this score. Although she was not able to make more complex and long sentences due to her late learning, overall, these results are a positive answer to our third research question, which asked about the effect of the Total Image Words Technique on increasing reading and writing skills. Listening skill: The performance of Negar in this score is also good and has reached 123 from a former score of 108, which indicates a growth of about 14%. Organizational skill: Negar has been able to perform well in this skill and have an 11% growth in the post-test. Speaking skill: Negar's speaking score in this test has increased from 95 to 113, which also shows a significant growth of 19%. 6. Conclusion Finally, after comparing the obtained results and analyzing them, we come to the conclusion that if children’s different senses are used in teaching slow learners, their performance will be better. The results show that the Total Image Word Technique is effective on the development of language cognition of the slow learner and, except for sentence imitation in all other language subtests, the child shows growth between 18 and 66 per cent. This method, in particular, has increased her vocabulary and comprehension to the point where the child can make meaningful short stories. دیرآموز دانش‏آموزی است که توانایی یادگیری مهارت‌های تحصیلی ضروری را دارد، ولی میزان و عمق یادگیری وی نسبت‌به متوسط همسالانش کم‌تر است. دانش‏آموزان دیرآموز در یادگیری زبان و خواندن و نوشتن مشکلات زیادی دارند. هدف این تحقیق ارائۀ راهکاری جدید برمبنای نظریه‏های زبان‌شناسی و روان‌شناسی زبان برای افزایش رشد شناخت زبانی این کودکان است. به این منظور، سعی شد با استفاده از تکنیک کل‏واژه‏های تصویری با روشی ابداعی، از تمام حواس کودک در یادگیری او استفاده شود. داده‏های این تحقیق به‌صورت میدانی و موردی از دختری سیزده ساله و دیرآموز ساکن مشهد جمع‏آوری شده ‏است. برنامۀ پیشنهادی آموزشی در این تحقیق شامل چهار مرحله است. در مرحلۀ اول با استفاده از فلش‏کارت‏های کل‏واژه‏های تصویری و با استفاده از حواس دیداری و شنیداری کودک، بر روی مهارت خواندن کار شد. در مرحلۀ دوم، تأکید بر معنا و زنجیرۀ معنایی کلمات بود. در مرحلۀ سوم با داستان‏های کوتاهی سعی شد درک مطلب کودک تقویت شود. در مرحلۀ چهارم که مرحلۀ کاربردشناسی است، کودک توانایی ساخت جملات با معنی و داستان‏های کوتاه را به‏دست ‏آورد. برای پیش‏آزمون و پس‏آزمون از آزمون رشد زبان (TOLD) استفاده شده است. نتایج به‌دست‏آمده نشان می‏دهد تکنیک کل‏واژه‏های تصویری بر روی رشد شناخت زبانی کودک دیرآموز مؤثر است و به‌جز تقلید جمله در تمام خرده‏آزمون‏های دیگر زبانی، کودک رشدی بین 18 تا 66 را نشان می‏دهد. این شیوه، به‌خصوص، گنجینۀ واژگان و درک مطلب او را افزایش داده است تا جایی که کودک می‏تواند داستان کوتاه معنی‏داری را بسازد.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Avoiding Sincere Apologies among Iranian Politicians and Its Cultural Justification: A Pragmatic Study پرهیز سیاستمداران ایرانی از عذرخواهی راستین و توجیه فرهنگی آن: پژوهشی در کاربردشناسی زبان 285 319 7030 10.52547/LRR.13.2.10 FA حسین رحمانی استادیار گروه زبان شناسی، دانشکده ادبیات و زبان های خارجی دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران. 0000-0003-2570-6256 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Political apologies, are among special type of apologies, which the politicians state to protect their own faces and to fulfill the communal need. But apologizing has its own strategies. Kempf (2009) introduces some verbal strategies such as Using lexical and syntactical means, omitting or blurring the gent, denying responsibility, selecting a specific victim, undermining the existence of the victim, and apology for a component of the offense (and not for the entire occurrence), etc. by the use of which the politicians avoid sincere apologies. Through Investigation of 100 utterances of apologies by politicians as broadcasted in the national and local media, the present article claims that these apologies are insincere. The results indicate that these insincerities have their roots in the Iranian cultural Memes of collectivism, overstating and truth avoiding. Introduction Apology is a speech act in which someone who has done or is responsible for something wrong tries to get the offended appeased and thereby save his own face. Likewise, in political apologies which are a sub-type of public apologies, a politician needs to both save his/her own face and to fulfill the communal need to appease the damaged face of people. But most of the time their apologies are regarded to be insincere. The present article, based on Kempf’s (2009) verbal strategies of apologies (using lexical and syntactical means, omitting or blurring the agent, denying responsibility, selecting a specific victim, undermining the existence of the victim, and apology for a component of the offense (and not for the entire occurrence), etc.) claims that the Iranian politicians blur their responsibility most of the time and in some cases, they only take responsibility only for a component of the offenses. Though insincere, the politician’s apologies are justifiable due to Iranian cultural Memes such as of collectivism, overstating, truth avoiding. This research intends to answer the following questions: 1. Which strategy was mostly used by politicians to avoid sincere apologies? 2. How does political positions affect the use of apologizing strategies? 3. How the insincerity of the Iranian politicians’ apologies is justified? Literature Review To have a proper grasp of the relative literature, they are categorized as follow: Apology Verbs Apologies should include explicit Illocutionary indicating devices (IFIDs) such as sorry and excuse me in order to be perceived as apologies. Aijmer (1996) investigated 215 apologies and found out 82.7% of them include sorry. Blum-Kulka and Olshtein (1984), Holtgraves (1989) and House (1989), Holmes (1990), and Meier (1992) found excuse me, sorry, and I’m sorry to be of highest frequencies, while Trosborg found sorry to be of low frequency. Shariatin and Chamani (2010) found excuse me to be the most frequent type of verbal apology in Persian. Comparative apology studies There has been numerous research which tried to compare apologies in English with their native language. Cohen and Olshtein (1981), Olshtein (1989), Meier (1996), Garcia (1989), House (1989) and Elsami Rasekh (2004) which compared English with Hebrew, Austrian, Spanish, German, and Persian are among the typical examples of the related literature. Generally, they found similarities among languages. Gender and apology studies The majority of the researchers who focused on the relations between apologies and gender such as Gonzales et. al (1990), Cody and McLaughlin (1990), Mills (2003) an Holmes (1990, 1995, 2014) concluded that women apologize more than men and attributed it to the politeness of women. Public Apologies Research in this field started late compared with the other studies. Having face consideration in mind, Olshtein (1989), Gruber (1993), Bull (1996), Thompson (2000) De Ayala (2001) considered apologies vital for the apologizer’s social status. Blaney and Benoit (2001), Benoit (1995) regarded apology a necessity for the politician’s face maintenance. Lind (2008), James (2008) and Rener (2008) considered apologies as a way for keeping social peace. Harris et.al. (2006) believe that it is necessary that the apologizer accept the responsibility clearly and his apology should be free of any excuses. Davis, Merrison and Goddard (2007) have looked into apology in email exchanges. Page (2014) focused on how companies apologize their customers. There has been research on apologies made by celebrities (Kaufman, 2012), sportsmen (Brazeal, 2008), politicians (Kampf & Lowenheim, 2012) and company managers (Park et al., 2011). Methodology Kempf’s Tactics for Compromising Apologies Kempf (2009: 8-24) demonstrated how speakers use various tactics that focus on each one of Deutschmann’s four components (The IFID, the offence, the victim and the offender) in order to lessen their responsibility for misdeeds. Each component has its own subcategories: The IFID When a public transgressor encounters with an avoidance conflict after a demand for apology, there are two major ways to incorporate an explicit verb in the utterance without truly apologizing: (1) Using a verb with several pragmatic functions that does not necessarily count as an apology, or (2) Realizing a non-performative speech act. Both of these allow speakers to project an appearance of regret (and, in turn, a moral persona), without taking self-threatening responsibility or juridical liability for the offense. The Offense There are five ways to lessen the responsibility of the transgressor even in cases in which he includes an ifid in his utterance. He can (1) apologize while undermining the claim that he offended someone; (2) apologize for the outcome (and not for the act); (3) apologize for the style (and not for the essence); (4) apologize for a specific component of the offense (and not for the entire occurrence); and lastly, (5) apologize while using syntactic and lexical means to downgrade his responsibility. The Victim The third cluster of tactics of avoiding responsibility centers on drawing a question mark regarding the identity of the offended party. In doing so, the apologizer undermines one of the basic premises of the remedial act: an acknowledgment that the act caused harm to a specific victim. Without the existence of a specific victim, there is no real damage caused from the act, and thus it cannot be framed as a transgression. Three tactics for undermining the offended party were found in the corpus: (1) Undermining the existence of the victim, (2) Selecting a specific victim, and (3) Blurring the identity of the victim. The Offender The last cluster of tactics to reduce responsibility and guilt in the apology utterance is focused on the offender. Several tactics for avoiding agency have already been considered by Bavelas (2004) who analyzed the way in which apologizers position themselves as the grammatical subject of acts described in their utterance, using simple active voice to admit agency and passive voice or omitting the agent all together to avoid agency. In this paper, I discuss two more tactics that reduce the agent's responsibility and, as in the last category of the "victim," violate the preparatory condition which demands the existence of a specific wrongdoer: (1) Denying responsibility and (2) Omitting or blurring the offender. Data The data includes 100 cases of apologies found in websites and social networks by different politicians with different political status. The search began with looking for the term ‘apology’ in different search engines and the results were categorized based on the speaker ranging from president, vice-president, ministers, governors and … The data is not restricted to a special period, though the majority of the apologies belong with the president Rouhani’s presidency. The analysis is void of any political side-taking and is merely linguistic. Method The data gathered were categorized based on five major political groups (President and his deputies (1-20), ministers (21-30), state governors (51-72), local governors (73-92), and parliamentary representatives (93-100)). Then based on Kempf’s typology, each of these apologies were categorized to see the frequency of each tactic. Results Investigating the apologies made by Iranian politicians based on Kempf (2009) revealed that 44 out of 100 apologies were based on the offender, 36 cases belong to the offence and 12 cases centered on the victim and 9 cases go to the IFID. In addition, out of the offender-based apology-tactics forty cases, i.e. the most frequent apology tactic, is about omitting or blurring the offender; in other words, the Iranian politicians try hard to show lessen their responsibility. Among these politicians the higher status politicians do not consider themselves responsible for the offences; most of the time, they attribute the offence to the outer factors on which they have no authority. It was also found that the local governors and the parliamentary representatives apologize more and they accept a part of the mistake and apologize for it. عذرخواهی‏ سیاسی گونه‏ای عذرخواهی است که در آن سیاسیون برای ترمیم وجهۀ خود، برآورده‏ ساختن مطالبۀ عموم و آرام کردن افراد آسیب‏دیده (از خطاها و قصوراتی که بنا به مسئولیتشان متوجه آنان است)، اقدام به آن می‏کنند. اما عذرخواهی‏ سبک و سیاق خاصی دارد. کمپف (2009) الگوها و راهکارهای کلامی را می‏شناساند که افراد با تمسک به آنان از عذرخواهی واقعی اجتناب می‏کنند؛ به‌کار بردن ابزارهای واژگانی و نحوی خاص، محو یا کم‌رنگ نشان ‏دادن کنندۀ کار، انکار مسئولیت، انتخاب قربانی خاص، کاستن از تعداد قربانیان، انتخاب قربانی خاص و نیز عذرخواهی به‏دلیل بخشی از خطا یا سبک آن و ... نمونه‏هایی از این راهکارهاست. با بررسی 100 نمونه عذرخواهی سیاسی انعکاس‌یافتۀ رسانه‏های داخلی براساس الگوهای کمپف (2009) این پژوهش مدعی است که عذرخواهی‏های سیاسی در ایران صادقانه نیست، اما با افزودن عنصر فرهنگ و درنظر داشتِ نقش ترمیمی عذرخواهی می‌توان به درک بهتری از آن دست یافت. یافته‏های پژوهش حاکی از آن‏ است که محو یا کم‏رنگ کردن مسئولیت خود یا پذیرش مسئولیت بخشی از خطا ازجمله راهبرد‏های اصلی مورداستفادۀ سیاستمداران ایرانی در طفره رفتن از عذرخواهی‏راستین است، اما این عدم صداقت در میم‏های فرهنگی جامعۀ جمع‏گرا، صداقت‏گریز و اغراق زدۀ ایرانی ریشه دارد.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Literary Creation and Cognitive Linguistics: An analysis of the Semantic Structure of Alireza Rowshan's Poems on the Basis of the Conceptual Blending Theory آفرینش ادبی و زبان‌شناسی شناختی: تحلیل ساختار معنایی اشعار علیرضا روشن برپایۀ نظریۀ هم‌آمیزی مفهومی 321 355 7031 10.52547/LRR.13.2.11 FA مجتبی پردل دانش‌آموختۀ دکتری زبانشناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 Abstract: this paper aims at an examination of Alireza Rowshan's poems based on the Conceptual Blending Theory put forth by Fauconnier and Turner (2002), investigating their semantics structure by drawing on the conceptual means the theory provides, and thus classifying his poems into a couple of stylistic categories. This is conducted through a qualitative research method, in a descriptive and analytic manner, so that, first, four select typical poems are explored throughout using the conceptual means provided by the Blending Theory, such as integration networks, blends, vital relations and so on, and, then, the resultant outcomes get extrapolated statistically into the rest of the poems contained within two of his most famous collections. In the process, according to the application of the foregoing conceptual means, Rowshan's poems turn out to be clearly and systematically classified into four major groups in terms of their semantic structure, while the details of each of these semantic structures are formulated through the conceptual means of the foresaid theory. What comes about through this analysis reveals that, by applying the newly emerging linguistic theories to the analysis of literary works, it is possible to enhance the conducted analyses in precision and order, thus advancing literary criticism one step further. 1. Introduction This paper aims at an examination of Alireza Rowshan's poems within the framework of the Conceptual Blending Theory put forth by Fauconnier and Turner (2002). It tries to investigate the semantics structure of these poems by drawing on the conceptual means the Blending theory provides, and thus to reach a classification of his poems into a couple of stylistic categories. Conceptual Blending Theory was originally proposed as a means to describe and explain meaning construction in ordinary language. Nevertheless, since the process of sense making constitutes one of the main characteristics of human beings in every domain, literature among many others, the mental operations Blending Theory proposes apply to all human activity, including literary texts. The same can be said in the case of Blank Verse poetry, as the main task in creating (and understanding) such poetry revolves around the analysis of complex semantic structures lying behind its form, usually composed of two or more clashing input mental spaces, giving creativity to it. The current research wishes to answer one main question: is it possible to make use of new linguistic theories (here Cognitive Linguistics) for an increase in the precision, clarity and systematicity of analyzing literary works, and if so, how? Our Hypothesis is that this is practical. In order to answer this question, we have selected two collections of the contemporary Persian Blank-Verse poet Alireza Rowshan, trying to scrutinize the semantic structure of them with the help of the conceptual means contained with the Blending Theory, and thus arriving at overall generalizations as to their semantic features and the way they are created by the author. Finally, we try to classify these poems stylistically on the basis of the Blending Theory means. 2. Materials and Methods following a qualitative methodology and in an analytic-descriptive manner, first, four select typical poems are throughly explored using the conceptual means provided by the Blending Theory, such as integration networks, blends, vital relations and so on, and, then, the resultant outcomes get extrapolated statistically into the rest of the poems contained within two of his most famous collections, namely, The Book of Ain't and Riveted by. We have built upon these two collections, as they contain the poet's short, minimalist poems. 3. Results and Discussion An application of the five-fold dimensions of the Blending Theory, including Constituting Principles, typology of Integration Networks, Classification of Blends, Vital Relations and Optimality Principles or Governing Principles, in the case of Alireza Rowshan's poems demonstrates that this theory, because of its rich conceptual tools for describing the process of meaning construction, is most capable of explaining the creation of the mentioned pieces, as well as assessing them in a rigorous, quantificational manner, implying thus a good ability for the systematic criticism and examination of literary works in general. As a result, Rowshan's poems turn out to be clearly and systematically classified into four major groups in terms of their semantic structure, while the details of each of these semantic structures are formulated through the conceptual means of the Blending theory. As it turns out, stylistic features of the semantic structure of Alireza Rowhan's poems in terms of the conceptual tools of the Blending Theory may be identified across four axes: 1) typology of the blends used in the semantic structure, which are mostly simple; 2) integration networks, which are mostly simple in his poems; 3) vital relations, which are mostly role and value, then, analogy and part-whole, all of which finally are compressed to uniqueness. 4) emergent structure, which are typically not very creative, but have s strong emotional impact. As for vital relations, it is to be noted that, through this analysis, a new vital relation has come to be identify which has not been referred to in the literature, and that is intertextuality. This is one of the new findings of this article. 4. Conclusion What comes about through this analysis reveals that, by applying the newly emerging linguistic theories to the analysis of literary works, it is possible to enhance the conducted analyses in precision and order, thus advancing literary criticism one step further. Thus, the question we raised at the beginning of our work (the possibility for new linguistic theories to be used in literature) is answered affirmatively. هدف مقالۀ حاضر آن است تا برپایۀ نظریۀ هم‎آمیزی مفهومی که از سوی فوکونیه و ترنر مطرح شده است به بررسی اشعار سپید علیرضا روشن بپردازد و با استفاده از ابزارهایی مفهومی که نظریۀ مزبور فراهم می‌آورد ساختار معنایی آن‌ها را مورد کندوکاو قرار دهد و بر همین اساس اشعار وی را به دسته‌های سبک‌شناسانۀ چندی تقسیم کند. در پژوهش حاضر، روشی کیفی و توصیفی ـ‌ تحلیلی مورداستفاده قرار گرفته است، بدین‌ترتیب که ابتدا به‌نحوی موشکافانه ساختار معنایی چهار مورد از اشعار نوعیِ علیرضا روشن را قالب مفاهیم نظریۀ هم‌آمیزی مفهومی، مفاهیمی چون شبکه‌های ادغامی، آمیزه‌های مفهومی، پیوندهای حیاتی و مانند این‌ها، بررسی می‌کنیم، و سپس نتایج حاصل را به گونه‌ای آماری به مابقی اشعار در دو مجموعۀ معروف‌تر او تعمیم‌ می‌بخشیم. از این رهگذر، برپایۀ ابزارهای مفهومی یادشده، اشعار علیرضا روشن به‌لحاظ ساختار معنایی به‌نحوی دقیق و روشن ذیل چهار دسته طبقه‌بندی می‌شوند، دسته‌هایی سبک‌شناسانه که ویژگی‌های کلیِ ساختار معنایی هر یک از آن‌ها به‌وضوح در قالب نظریۀ هم‌آمیزی مفهومی صورت‌بندی می‌شوند. حاصل کار روشن می‌کند که با کاربست نظریه‌های جدید زبان‌شناسی درمورد مطالعۀ علمی آثار ادبی می‌توان بر دقت و نظام‌مندی تحلیل‌ها افزود، و بررسی‌های ادبی را یک گام به‌سمت علمی‌تر شدن پیش برد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7031_b91f5a1e50d6a0fff36dda5a1bb08d76.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 A Study of Total Reduplication in Ghayeni Dialect based on Parallel and Stratal Optimality Theory بررسی انواع تکرار کامل در گویش قاینی در چارچوب نظریۀ بهینگی موازی و لایه‌ای 357 399 7032 10.52547/LRR.13.2.12 FA زهره‌سادات ناصری استادیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز، اهواز، ایران. 0000-0003-1470-0078 پریا رزم‌دیده استادیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه ولی‌عصر (عج) رفسنجان، رفسنجان، ایران. 0000-0002-9373-848X Journal Article 1970 01 01 The process of Reduplication, due to its importance, has attracted very much attention from linguists in recent decades The present research aims at describing and analyzing total reduplication processes including added medial and final total reduplication and echo reduplication (changing the initial consonant or vowel of reduplicant) in Ghayeni dialect based on Parallel Optimality Theory (POT), in particular Stratal Optimality Theory (SOT). To this end, the considered reduplicative data were gathered based on Shaghaghi reduplication model (2000, 2018). To analyze some data, we need to predict the correct output through some levels to consider the morphological derivation correctly. Since POT has a one-level (input and output) nature, it is unable to explain some reduplicative data. So, SOT, with no limit on the number and kinds of levels, is used to analyze the medial and final added total reduplication. In the present study, the final added total reduplication is considered in two stem levels in which ONSET is on the top of constraint ranking. Since the final consonant of the base undergoes germination, in the medial added total reduplication using enclitic /o/, two levels of stem and word are required. In the medial added total reduplication, the constraint ranking is only different in stem level (a) because the type of reduplicant (echo or non-echo) is determined in this level. But in the next levels, stem level (b) and word level, which undergoes germination and resyllabification, constraints have the same ranking. The results show that SOT presents a more obvious analysis of the mid-levels in the medial and final added total reduplication. 1. Introduction Reduplication is a syntactic process in which all or part of a base word is repeated (Lieber, 2009). In the Reduplication process, an element (or an affix) is added to the base word, which is called a Reduplicative component, and its form is affected by the base word (Kager, 1999). In this word formation process, all or part of the base word is repeated to the left, right, or sometimes in the middle of the base word, included total reduplication (total reduplication and total added reduplication) and partial reduplication (prefixation, suffixation and infixation). Types of repetition in Persian and its different variants have been considered especially in the framework of parallel optimality theory (OT). The question now is whether reduplicative words can be analyzed in another approach of OT, here the stratal OT, in one of the Persian linguistic variants, the Ghayeni dialect? Ghayeni dialect is spoken in Ghayen. Ghayen is one of the cities of South Khorasan which is limited to Gonabad and Torbat-e Heydariyeh from the north and Birjand from the south. Therefore, among the types of reduplication processes, the aim of the present study is to investigate and analyze the total reduplication process including total non-additive reduplication and total additive reduplication (middle and end) and complete echoic reduplication (by changing the vowel or initial consonant of the reduplicated component) based on the classification of reduplicative process types from the perspective of Shaghaghi (2000, 2018) in Ghayeni dialect according to parallel OT (Prince & Smolensky, 1993/2004) and stratal OT (Kiparsky, 1998a, 2000). 2. Theoretical Framework Stratal OT is one of the approaches to OT that is made by combining stratal approaches such as morphology and lexical phonology with OT. In the stratal optimality approach, there are different models, the similarity between them is in the variety of layers and there is no limit to the number and type of them. In the optimality approach, there are several layers that are arranged sequentially from input to output. According to Kiparsky, there are three layers in the stratal OT. At the three levels of this approach, the stem first enters the stem level. Inside the stem level, in addition to the stem, a derivative affix or a compound word is added to it. The product of this level enters the word level. At the word level, a second derivative (if any) or inflectional affix is added to the output of the stem level. Finally, at the postlexical level, which is at the phrase level, the words are combined, and what happens at this level is only the study of phonological and morphological changes. 3. Methodology The research method is a descriptive-field method to test the hypothesis. In this regard, both documentary and field methods have been used in collecting data. In the field method, the researchers recorded the speech of twenty native speakers, mostly illiterate or older than sixty years. Finally, a written corpus containing one hundred reduplicative words and an oral corpus consisting of three hundred sentences were collected. Then one of the authors, who is a native speaker of Ghayeni and has sufficient mastery of its words, extracted reduplicative words based on the dialect. After categorization based on Shaghaghi's (2000, 2018) reduplicative process types, the reduplicative words were transliterated according to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), Doulos SIL version. Next, by identifying the occurrence or non-occurrence of constraints corresponding to the context of reduplicative words and their ranking, the analysis appropriate to each of the changes was first examined in the framework of the parallel OT. 4. Results and Discussion The process of repetition has long been one of the interesting topics for linguists as a result of advances in phonological and structural theories (McCarthy, 1979; Marantz, 1982; Kiparsky, 1986; McCarthy & Prince, 1986, 1993, 1995; Spencer, 1991; Haspelmath, 2002; Inkelas & Zoll, 2005). In this section, the types of total non-additive reduplication and total additive reduplication (middle and end) and complete echoic reduplication (by changing the vowel or initial consonant of the reduplicated component) are examined in the framework of parallel OT (Prince & Smolensky, 1993/2004). In cases where the parallel OT is not able to justify the differences between the input and output forms, the stratal OT )Kiparsky, 1998a, 2000( is used. parallel OT is used to justify total non-additive reduplication in Ghayeni dialect. The faithfulness constraint IDENT-BR (Kennedy, 2008) has the highest order, according to which the corresponding base and reduplicated parts must be exactly the same. The two faithfulness constraints of MAX-IO (McCarthy & Prince, 1995), which rejects output deletion, and MAX BR (McCarthy & Prince, 1995), which do not allow any deletion in the reduplicated component, rank higher than *REPEAT (Kennard, 2004) which penalizes the proximity of identical syllables. To examine final total and medial added reduplication, it is necessary to describe the layers and the stages of their formation step by step, so parallel optimal theory (Prince & Smolensky, 1993/2004) is not able to describe this process appropriately, because it has a single-level input-output nature. To explain total reduplication of the final addition based on the stratal OT, two layers must be considered, both of which are at the stem level. At the stem level, word formation is of the derivation and composition type. While at the word level inflectional form (s) of the word is generated. Some types of total medial added reduplications are created by /o/ suffix. In this case, due to the occurrence of the final consonant of the base between the two vowels, that consonant geminates. In Persian, the geminated phoneme is not placed at the end of the syllable, but it can be after the vowel, the geminated phoneme is divided into two syllables (Kord-e Za'faranloo et al. 2016, p.228). To explain total echoic reduplication that changes the beginning of the reduplicated component, three levels must be considered, two stem levels and one word level. Three levels of analysis, two stem levels and one word level, are needed to explain the total echoic reduplication that changes the vowel in the reduplicated component. At the level of stem A, the reduplicated component is echoed to the base, so that its vowel is different from the base vowel. 5. Conclusion In response to the main question of the research, based on the ability of the stratal OT to justify the changes between input and output forms of reduplicated words in Ghayeni dialect, the results showed that to evaluate the total final and medial added reduplication, the layers and its formation steps needed to be described step by step. Therefore, parallel OT was not considered appropriate due to the monolayer nature of input-output. Thus, stratal OT was used to explain the complete repetition processes of medial (echoic and non-echoic) and final. For the analysis total reduplication, the final added was assumed to have two layers at the stem level and it was shown that the order of the constraints was different in each layer. In the case of total reduplication, the medial added is geminated due to the linking morpheme /o/. Parallel OT could not justify this change in input and output, so stratal OT was the solution of this analysis and three levels (two stem levels and one word level) were considered. Regarding the explanation of the total medial added reduplication, both echoic and non-echoic, it was observed that the ranking the constraints is different only in the first layer, i.e. the level of stem A, and is the same in the other two layers. The reason for the difference in the first layer is that at this level the type of the reduplicated component is determined to be non-echoic or echoic, and if it is echoic, the onset changes or the vowel. At the other two levels, the addition of the /o/ morpheme, gemination and resyllabification are common in all three types of reduplications. That being said, parallel OT can only handle the analysis of total non-additive reduplication, but is not sufficient for the analysis of total medial and final added reduplication. This confirms the research hypothesis: stratal OT is sufficient to analyze these processes, although the principle of linguistic economics may not be observed. فرایند تکرار در دهه‌های اخیر بسیار موردتوجه زبان‌شناسان قرار گرفته ‌است. هدف پژوهش حاضر توصیف و تحلیل انواع تکرار کامل شامل تکرار کامل ناافزدوه، تکرار کامل افزودۀ میانی و پایانی و تکرار کامل پژواکی (با تغییر همخوان آغازی یا واکه جزء مکرر) در گویش قاینی براساس نظریۀ بهینگی موازی و به‌ویژه رویکرد بهینگی لایه‌ای است. بدین منظور داده‌های مکرر موردبررسی براساس الگوی تکرار شقاقی (1379 و 1397) به روش اسنادی و میدانی با ضبط گفتار آزاد و مصاحبه با 20 گویشور بومی بی‌سواد/ کم‌سواد با سن بالای 60 سال جمع‌آوری شده ‏است. در تحلیل برخی داده‌ها نیاز است برون‌داد صحیح مرحله‌به‌مرحله پیش‌بینی ‌شود تا اشتقاق ساخت‌واژی به‌درستی بررسی شود. رویکرد بهینگی موازی به‌دلیل ماهیت تک‌سطحی (درون‌داد و برون‌داد) آن قادر به تبیین برخی داده‌های مکرر نیست، از‌این‌رو، رویکرد بهینگی لایه‌ای که هیچ‌گونه محدودیتی بر تعداد و نوع لایه‌ها ندارد، در تحلیل تکرار کامل افزوده میانی و پایانی استفاد شده ‌است. در این پژوهش، تکرار کامل افزودۀ پایانی در دو سطح ستاک بررسی می‌شود که در هر دو سطح محدودیت ONSET بالاترین رتبه را دارد. در تکرار کامل افزودۀ میانی با افزودن پی‌بست /o/ چون همخوان پایانی پایه مشدد می‌شود، به دو سطح ستاک و یک سطح واژه نیاز است. در تکرار کامل افزودۀ میانی فقط در سطح ستاک الف مرتبه‌بندی محدودیت‌ها متفاوت است، زیرا نوع جزء مکرر (پژواکی یا غیرپژواکی) در این سطح مشخص می‌شود، اما در دو سطح بعدی، سطح ستاک ب و سطح واژه که مشمول تشدید و بازهجابندی هستند، محدودیت‌ها دارای مرتبه‌بندی یکسانی هستند. درنهایت، یافته‏ها نشان داد نظریه بهینگی لایه‏ای تحلیل روشن‏تری از لایه‏های میانی در فرایند تکرار کامل افزوده میانی و پایانی ارائه می‏کند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7032_6af97d7deea1a1d2c76c5c512e66700b.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Study of the Effect of Addresseeâs Power and Gender on the Choice of Politeness Strategies in Encouragement Speech Act in Persian بررسی تاثیر قدرت و جنسیت مخاطب بر گزینش راهبردهای‌ ادب در کنش‌گفتاری تشویق‌کردن در زبان فارسی 401 434 7033 10.52547/LRR.13.2.13 FA عباسعلی آهنگر استاد زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، زاهدان، ایران. 0000-0003-1288-1506 ستاره مجاهدی رضائیان دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، زاهدان، ایران فریبا اسفندیارپور کارشناسی ‌ارشد زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، زاهدان، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the addressee’s power and gender on the choice of the type and number of encouragement strategies employed by Persian male and female university students based on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) theory. A number of 60 M.A. students (30 males and 30 females) from the University of Sistan and Baluchestan participated in this study. Discourse completion test and role play technique were utilized as two data gathering instruments. The data were analyzed using the Chi-square and Independent-T test (p<.05). The results indicated there was a significant relationship between the addressee’s power and the type as well as the number of encouragement strategies employed by male and female university students. The most frequent strategy type was the “negative politeness” giving deference for the addressee with higher power (the professor). As to the number of strategies, the most and less frequent ones were the combination of two and nine strategies, respectively. The addressee’s gender had an effect on the type of the strategies used by male students in three situations; while it didn’t have any effect on the number of strategies used by male students and also on the type and number of strategies employed by female students. The most frequent strategy type used by female students was the “positive politeness” and the combination of three strategies for male and female addressees; by male students: “positive politeness” for male addressees and “negative politeness” and the combination of two strategies for female addressees. 1. Introduction Interpersonal interactions and how they are formed play a significant role in human social life. One way to interact is through using different speech acts. Many factors can involve in making use of politeness principle in interacting and communicating. In life and social interactions, human beings use various speech acts such as request, agreement, disagreement, swearing, giving advice and encouragement in order to express their meaning. One of the most important and effective theories in pragmatics field is Austin’s speech act theory. He believes that every sentence may have a performative feature and also it has an action within it; therefore, every sentence should be considered within its context (Austin, 1962). Employing the speech acts depends on various factors such as language characteristics and socio-cultural frameworks. Among these factors, politeness is one of the crucial factors in interpersonal communications in different societies and cultures. Politeness can be represented in various aspects of behavior based on the factors such as the addressee’s social status, power, and gender in using speech acts. One of the most widely used speech acts among their various range in interpersonal interactions is the encouragement speech act. If this speech act is appropriately used in the right context, it will have important effects on relations between individuals as well as on saving face based on power and gender of the addressee. Thus based on what is mentioned and according to the importance and impact of the encouragement speech act in every person’s social life, the type and number of encouragement strategies and the effect of the addressee’s power and gender on the use of this speech act by Persian language male and female university students can be investigated and analyzed based on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness theory. The research data were gathered via two data collection tools including discourse completion test (DCT) and role-play technique. The hypotheses of the present study are as follows: 1. Due to the addressee’s power, there is a significant difference in the useage of the type of encouragement speech act strategies among Persian-speaking male and female university students. 2. Due to the addressee’s power, there is a significant difference in the usage of the number of encouragement speech act strategies among Persian-speaking male and female university students 3. Due to the addressee’s gender, there is a significant difference in the usage of the type of encouragement speech act strategies among Persian-speaking male and female university students. 4. Due to the addressee’s gender, there is a significant difference in the usage of the number of encouragement speech act strategies among Persian-speaking male and female university students. 2. Literature Review By considering linguistic, cultural, and social characteristics of language, different speech acts have been examined by many researchers. Rahimpour and Yaghubi Noutash (1999) investigated the impact of gender and subject on speech act in English language learners. Amou Ali Akbari Najafabadi (2007) has conducted a research to examine the Social-interpersonal power and politeness strategies in Persian. Pishgadam and Rasouli (2011) examined the persuasion speech act strategies among Iranian language learners by considering speaker’s gender. Zeynali Dastuyee (2012) studied the effect of addressee’s power and gender on the type and number of apology and refusal strategies employed by Sarawani university students. Shafaghi (2013) investigated the promise speech act and the use of promise in political discourse. Pishghadam and Attaran (2015) studied the speech act of argumentation in English and Persian advertisements. Azarparand (2019) has investigated changes in addressing strategies based on Brown and Levinson's Politeness theory. This case study research has been conducted in Tehran University among Iranian lecturers and students. 3. Methodology In the present study, the effect of the gender and power of addressee variables on the choice of politeness strategies in encouragement speech act in Persian language is investigated. This study is a descriptive-analytical research. A number of 60 M.A. students (30 males and 30 females) from the University of Sistan and Baluchestan participated in this study. Their age was ranged from 23 to 34 years old. They had an average age of 25 years. All subjects were randomly selected, were monolingual, and Persian-speaking postgraduate students who were studying in different fields of study. Discourse completion test (DCT) and role play technique were utilized as two data gathering devices. The questionnaire which was used in the study was a researcher-made one. The data were analyzed using Chi-square test, Analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Independent T-test. 4. Results The present study examined the encouragement speech act based on two determining variables including the power and the gender of the addressee in different contexts. The findings of the study show that the addressee’s power can be an important and effective factor in the selection of the type and number of the encouragement strategies. The most frequent strategy type is the “negative politeness” strategy. In addition, the addressee’s power has an effect on the number of the encouragement strategies employed by male and female university students. As the power of the addressee increases, the use of more complex strategies becomes more and simple strategies are utilized in dealing with the addressee with low power. As to the number of the strategies, the most frequent and less frequent ones are the combination of two and nine strategies respectively. The results also indicate that the gender of the addressee affects the type of the encouragement strategies used by male university students while, it doesn’t affect the number of strategies used by male students. It also doesn’t have any effect on the type and number of the strategies used by female university students. Also, data analysis reveals that there is no significant relationship between the addressee’s gender and the number of the encouragement strategies. In other words, the addressee’s gender has no effect on the number of the encouragement strategies used by male and female university students هدف پژوهش حاضر بررسی تأثیر قدرت و جنسیت مخاطب بر گزینش نوع و تعداد راهبردهای تشویقکردن بهکاربردهشده توسط دانشجویان پسر و دختر فارسی‌زبان براساس نظریه بروان و لوینسون (1987) است. جامعه آماری این پژوهش شامل 60 دانشجو (30 پسر و 30 دختر) کارشناسیارشد دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان بود. دادههای زبانی با استفاده از پرسش‌نامۀ تکمیلگفتمان و روش ایفاینقش گردآوری و بهوسیله آزمون آماری خیدو و تیمستقل (05/0p<) بررسی و تحلیل شدند. نتایج حاصل از دو روش گردآوری داده‌ها نشان داد رابطه معناداری بین قدرت مخاطب و نوع و تعداد راهبردهای بهکاربردهشده توسط دانشجویان پسر و دختر وجود داشت. پرکاربردترین راهبرد تشویقکردن «راهبردهای ادبسلبی» از نوع احترامگذاشتن برای مخاطب با قدرت بالاتر (استاد) بود. متداولترین راهبردهای تشویقکردن از لحاظ تعداد نیز راهبردهای ترکیبی دوتایی و کمکاربردترین، راهبردهای ترکیبی نهتایی بودند. جنسیت مخاطب در سه موقعیت بر نوع راهبردهای بهکاربردهشده توسط دانشجویان پسر تاثیر داشت؛ درحالیکه بر تعداد راهبردهای بهکار بردهشده توسط دانشجویان پسر و همچنین بر نوع و تعداد راهبردهای بهکاربردهشده توسط دانشجویان دختر موثر نبود. بدینترتیب، پرکاربردترین نوع راهبرد استفادهشده توسط دانشجویان دختر برای مخاطب مرد و زن راهبردهای «ادبایجابی» و ترکیبی سهتایی بود. پرکاربردترین راهبرد درمیان آزمودنیهای پسر در مقابل مخاطبهای مرد راهبردهای «ادبایجابی» و برای مخاطبزن راهبردهای «ادبسلبی» و ترکیبی دوتایی بود.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7033_47060dfad0287968d7a4a022691b7f53.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Usage of Loanwords in Spoken Persian بررسی کاربرد وام‌واژه‌ها در گونۀ گفتاری زبان فارسی 435 467 7034 10.52547/LRR.13.2.14 FA فریبا قطره دانشیار گروه زبانشناسی، دانشکده ادبیات، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-6146-1180 نسرین خردمند دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه الزهرا (س)، تهران، ایران. 0000-0001-7090-8012 بدری‌السادات سیدجلالی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه الزهرا (س)، تهران، ایران. 0000-0001-6621-6566 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Loan words, as one of the consequences of language contacts, can be widely used by native language speakers. The expansion of loanwords varies depending on many linguistic and non-linguistic factors. The present study, based on a descriptive-analytical method, aims to investigate the usage of loanwords in spoken Persian from three different perspectives: semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. For this purpose, 600 minutes of spoken Persian corpus of Al-Zahra University, including 14000 sentences in Persian for 100 different situations and subjects, used by 240 female speakers and 80 male speakers, have been extracted and studied according to loanwords’ “semantic fields”, “abstraction and non-abstraction”, and “usage frequency” as well as two sociolinguistics variables (“motivation” and “gender” of the speakers). The results of comparing the variety of loanwords and their usage frequency in different semantic fields show that the highest frequency of use belongs to the semantic fields of basic actions and technology, language and speech, and social and political relations. Moreover, research data indicate that loanwords are more related to abstract concepts and phenomena comparing to concrete ones. The research results, from the sociolinguistic view, also reveal that more women than men use loanwords with a common Persian equivalent. “Filling communication gaps in recipient language” and “social, cultural, political and scientific credibility of donor language” are the most important motivations for Persian speakers to use loanwords in their speech. Introduction Following the contact and exchange between human societies, due to social, economic, historical, geographical, political, and cultural reasons, their languages influence each other and undergo changes. One of the remarkable instances of these interlinguistic changes is the emergence of loanwords which can be widely used in spoken speech. Today, as a result of the expansion of the mass media and the advancement of science and technology, we are witnessing the increasing use of loanwords in spoken Persian, which might have adverse consequences for our language over time. The usage of loanwords is not limited to a specific context or field of language. Speakers of each language may use different loanwords in their everyday speech, depending on their individual and social needs or motivations. The current study aims to investigate the usage of loanwords in the spoken Persian from three perspectives: semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. Thus, the following research questions are raised: 1. Which semantic fields of loanwords have the highest frequencies in spoken Persian? 2. Are loadwords more related to abstract or concrete concepts? 3. Regarding the gender of speakers, which group mostly uses loanwords with a common Persian equivalent? 4. What are the most important motivations for the use of loanwords by Persian speakers? Literature Review Since the present study deals with the use of loanwords in the spoken variety of Persian, the literature review is presented into two subheadings: A) Linguistic and sociological studies about loanwords, including Robins (1964), Sapir (1970) and Haspelmath (2009). B) Corpus-based studies of Persian language, including Sharafi (2000), Mehryar (2003), Sattari (2009), Ketabi et al. (2010), Kargozari & Tafazzoli (2012), Mohammadi & Abdotajedini (2013). A small number of the mentioned studies have been devoted to the invetigation of spoken Persian and the majority of researchers have studied loanwords in written literature. Moreover, in those limited number of works on spoken Persian, the reaseachers have expolred controlled data, mostly recorded radio and television programs, which are far from normal speech. Thus, as can be seen, this is the first time that the facts of spoken Persian have been studied in terms of the usage of loanwords. Methodology To answer the aforementioned research questions, based on a descriptive-analytical method, the usage of loanwords in spoken Persian was analyzed from three perspectives: semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. For this purpose, 600 minutes of spoken Persian corpus of Al-Zahra University, including 14000 sentences in Persian for 100 different situations and subjects, used by 240 female speakers and 80 male speakers, have been extracted and studied according to loanwords’ “semantic fields”, “abstraction and non-abstraction”, and “usage frequency” as well as two sociolinguistics variables (“motivation” and “gender” of the speakers). The corpus of this study, being prepared in the Linguistics Department of Al-Zahra University, is the first and currently the only corpus of natural speech for spoken Persian recorded in various social situations. One of the most important features of this corpus is that, unlike other controlled databases, here the researchers have access to natural speech of native speakers. Since the participants are not aware of this fact that their words are being recorded, the results and findings can reveal facts of nature speech and consequently are less biased. There is no need to mention that all privacy concerns have been observed during data collection. Results The results of comparing the variety of loanwords and their usage frequency in different semantic fields show that the highest frequency of use belongs to the semantic fields of basic actions and technology, language and speech, and social and political relations. Moreover, research data indicate that loanwords are more related to abstract concepts and phenomena comparing to concrete ones. The research results, from the sociolinguistic view, also reveal that more women than men use loanwords with a common Persian equivalent. “Filling communication gaps in recipient language” and “social, cultural, political and scientific credibility of donor language” are the most important motivations for Persian speakers to use loanwords in their speech. List 1: loan words of the corpus update, upload, application, atom, autobahn (freeway), autobus (bus), add, Adams (chewing gum), address, adrenaline, eau de Cologne (perfume), art brush, agency, SMS, ascenseur (elevator), spray, sport, speaking, spin, strategy, stress, story, astigmat (astigmatism), screen shot, skill, skill worker, slide, off, UK band (brand new), active, expire, express, expression, aklil (glitter), équipe (group), alarm, album, alzheimer's, ampoule, amphitheater, energy, Angry Birds, online, optic, average, urgence (emergency), origin, OK, Oh Yeah!, idea, ideal, immigration, email, intranet, internet, Internet Explorer, entry, battery, bascule (scale), baguette, band, … List 2: Derived, compound, and Derived-compound words containing a non-Persian element Atomi (Atomic), energy darmani (energy therapy), ba-class (high-class), Buddayi (Buddhist), post-e- electronic (e-mail), pomp-e-benzon (gas station), testi (by test), telephoni (by telephone), randomi (randomly), size-bandi (sizing), miyan term (midterm), … Conclusion One of the most frequent linguistic consequences of language contacts is the emergence of loanwords. There are two main motivations for using loanwords: “filling communication gaps in recipient language” and “social, cultural, political and scientific credibility of donor language”. The results of data analysis show that, regarding the gender of participants, women tend to use more loanwords with common Persian equivalents than men. Men mostly use those loanwords which are often common words in Persian and don’t seem strange, and a small percentage of their loanwords are non-common and have a typical Persian equivalence; However, this percentage is higher for female participants. In other words, in most cases, men’s purpose of using loanwords is to “fill communication gaps in recipient language” and women's motivation is “the social, cultural, political and scientific credibility of donor language”. وام‌واژه‌ها که از برخورد دو جامعۀ زبانی متولد می‌شوند، می‌توانند کاربردهای گسترده‌ای در گفتار بومیان یک زبان پیدا کنند. گسترش کاربرد وام‌واژه‌ها بسته به عوامل گوناگون زبانی و غیرزبانی متفاوت است. پژوهش حاضر بر آن است تا برمبنای روشی تحلیلی ـ توصیفی کاربرد وام‌واژه‌ها در گونۀ گفتاری زبان فارسی را از سه منظر معنایی، کاربردشناختی و جامعه‌شناختی بررسی کند. بدین منظور 600 دقیقه از پیکرۀ گفتاری فارسی دانشگاه الزهرا (س)، شامل 14000 جمله به زبان فارسی در 100 موقعیت و موضوع مختلف که توسط 240 گویشور زن و 80 گویشور مرد به‌کار رفته‌اند، با در نظر گرفتن «حوزۀ معنایی»، «انتزاعی و غیرانتزاعی بودن» وام‌واژه‌ها‌، بسامد کاربرد یا میزان «نفوذپذیری» آن‌ها، و دو متغیر جامعه‌شناختی زبان شامل «انگیزۀ استفاده» از وام‌واژه‌ها و «جنسیت» گویشوران بررسی شده است. نتایج حاصل از مقایسۀ تنوع وام‌واژه‌ها و بسامد کاربرد آن‌ها بر اساس حوزه‌های معنایی مختلف نشان می‌دهد وام‌واژه‌های مربوط به «فعالیت‌های پایه و فناوری»، «روابط اجتماعی و سیاسی» و «گفتار و زبان» بیشترین سهم را در حوزه‌های معنایی وام‌واژه‌‎ها دارند. به‌علاوه، داده‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد درصد بیشتری از وام‌واژه‌ها مربوط به مفاهیم و پدیده‌های انتزاعی‌اند و میزان کاربرد این واژه‌ها نیز در مقایسه با مفاهیم و پدیده‌های مادی بیشتر است. از منظر جامعه‌شناختی نیز نتایج پژوهش حاکی از آن است که زنان در مقایسه با مردان بیشتر از وام‌واژه‌هایی که دارای معادل رایج فارسی‌اند استفاده می‌کنند و «پر کردن خلأهای ارتباطی در زبان قرض‌گیرنده» و «ارزش و اعتبار اجتماعی، فرهنگی، سیاسی و علمی زبان قرض‌دهنده» مهم‌ترین انگیزه‌های کاربرد وام‌واژه‌ها توسط گویشوران زبان فارسی هستند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7034_1f50d0737a738a9ba3206543d1102cbc.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Phonological Function-based Speech compression system: A Case Study of Movies Before and After the Islamic Revolution نظام فشرده‌سازی کلامی براساس کارکرد واجی: مطالعۀ موردی گفتمان فیلم‌های قبل و بعد از انقلاب اسلامی 469 496 7035 10.52547/LRR.13.2.15 FA راضیه کاشفی خویشان دکترای زبان‌شناسی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-7371-507X مریم ایرجی مدیر گروه زبان‌شناسی واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران 0000-0001-7026-7606 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Frequency of compression process in Bybee Approach plays a pivotal role between different characters in dialogues of Persian films. In various historical periods, considering her social status, “woman” less likely has used non-standard Persian language compared to “man”. The main issue of this study is about the frequency of compression process in Bybee approach between two male and female sexes in Persian Movies. Which one of Persian language’s elements has been shown more in studied movies in opinion of Bybee? How the language can challenge the system of feminine and masculine relationships in performances? What is the cultural function of identity in this field? This study was conducted to analyze the phonology of phonetic changes caused by compression in Persian language within two different cultural and social fields. Such differentiation is well revealed in dialogues of movies associated with abovementioned historical periods. In fact, this study indicates that compression has a cultural origin as a social issue and such cultural origin that indicates itself in linguistic or discursive styles of individuals with different social classes. Moreover, analyzing the compressed forms is not just limited to making decision about summarization so that the differences between compressed forms are not just structurally a morphological phenomenon; sometimes, it depends on some functional and social considerations such as gender type. The best way to deal with questions related to the interaction between phonetic processes and grammatical and lexical categories is diachronic (historical) approach. Phonological changes have a one-way path, and different mechanisms of phonological changes are applied in different stages. These changes start for reasons such as phonetic conditions and gradually are customized as part of sound pattern-meaning correspondence through processes that are more and more related to the words and phrases. There is ample evidence that phonetics change or the change processes can affect words gradually and at different speeds, and one of the important determinants of this speed is the frequency of word usage. Given that the cognitive approach of phonology is rarely taken into account, this question is raised that, in connecting phonology and cognitive sciences, to what extent can the obtained data be discussed with cognitive phonology and what results are obtained from this perspective? In this study, the main questions are, “how is the frequency of the compression process between male and female in Persian language films through Bybee’s approach?”, “From Bybee’s point of view, compression of which elements of Persian language have become more prominent in the discourse of the studied films?”, “How can language challenge the system of male-female relationships through performance?” and “What is the cultural function of identity in this regard?” Along with Bybee’s phonological approach, the aim of the present study is phonological analysis of phonetic changes resulting from the compression process in Persian films in two culturally and socially distinct historical contexts. Therefore, the main hypothesis of the present study is defined as "the compression process in Persian-language films has been increasing from old to new ones, and the frequency of the compression process is higher in men than women." The corpus and data of this research are adapted from the text of conversations between the main characters in pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary Iranian films: Ganj-e Qarun (Siamak Yasemi, 1965), Qaisar (Masoud Kimiaei, 1969), Lottery (Mohammad Hossein Mahdavian, 2018) and Life and a Day (Saeed Roustaei, 2016). The reason for choosing these films as sources of the present study is that the dialogues were most consistent with the actual data. In fact, regarding the nature of these data, it can be claimed that part of the difference in compression observed in two samples belonging to the pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary historical periods, can be the result of the character and the context in which the man or woman is placed. The corpus of this research is taken from the dialogues of the main male and female characters in old and new movies (old: Qaisar and Ganj-e Qarun; new: Lottery and Life and a Day). To this end, the researcher, while watching these films, wrote down the main and important dialogues and then transcribed them based on the International Transliteration Alphabet (IPA), and identified and analyzed the omission and integration processes that, in this study, are called compression. The research process is such that the compression process in selected old films and then in selected new films has been studied and analyzed and finally a comparison has been made between them. In addition, in order to prove the research hypothesis and collect the required data, the compression process in the selected pre-revolutionary films has been studied and analyzed from a cognitive point of view. Then this process has been repeated for the selected post-revolutionary films and finally a comparison has been made between them. The results of this study can be interpreted in light of the findings of research in gender linguistics that began in early 1970s. In this regard, concerning formation of social gender-oriented identity, especially in the cultural context that limits the relationship between genders, the formation of different compression norms is completely natural. In addition, given the freedom of men in observing cultural norms in comparison with women, higher frequency of compression, which is a deviation from the standard language, is also justifiable. The results of this study are consistent with Modarresi (1989) regarding the linguistic differences between men and women and believing more in the social differences between these two groups. He argues that as either gender is more active than the other in some areas of activity, the terms related to that area are considered masculine or feminine. Modarressi also refers to the gender-specific language patterns and believes that if men and women in any society do not follow these patterns, they will lose their special social status or at least be ridiculed. Therefore, it can be said that the degree of compression is in fact a function or indicator of the social status to which the speaker, whether male or female, belongs and indicates its semiotics (Paknahad Jabarouti, 2002). In addition, the use of higher compression in men could be justified according to Lakoff (1973 who believes that social base of women is more unstable and shakier than men. He seeks the reflection of these social bases in language, which is manifested in women relying more on standard and uncompressed forms. Finally, concerning the main purpose of the present study, the compression in the obtained data confirms the function of Bybee’s cognitive perspective in this regard. In addition, it was found that compression application has been increasing overtime. Therefore, it can be claimed that Persian speakers more frequently use the compression process in their speech over time which is done to accelerate the speech. Finally, it was found that in terms of social cognitive application and due to the greater commitment of women to meet their language standards in conversation, they were more inclined than men to use instances of compression فشرده‏سازی از دیدگاه بایبی به فرایندی گفته می‏شود که در آن، واژه‏ها دچار کاهش می‏شوند و این کاهش به‌صورت حذف یا ادغام در واج‏ها رخ می‏دهد. بسامد این فرایند در رویکرد بایبی بین شخصیت‏های مختلف در گفتمان محاورۀ فیلم‏های فارسی جایگاه پر‏رنگی دارد. در ادوار مختلف تاریخ، «زن» به‌واسطۀ پایگاه اجتماعی‏اش در مقایسه با «مرد» همواره کم‌تر تمایل به استفاده از فارسی غیرمعیار داشته است. هدف از نگارش این مقاله تحلیل واج‌شناختی تغییرات آوایی ناشی از روند فشرده‌سازی در فیلم‌های زبان فارسی در دو بافت متمایز فرهنگی ـ اجتماعی است. داده‏های پژوهش حاضر شامل تمامی موارد صرفی حذف و ادغام مشاهده‌شده در دو فیلم قدیمی گنج قارون (سیامک یاسمی، 1344) و قیصر (مسعود کیمیایی، 1348) و دو فیلم جدید لاتاری (محمدحسین مهدویان، 1397) و ابد و یک روز (سعید روستایی، 1394) بوده که پس از گردآوری در چارچوب واج‌شناسی شناختی بایبی (1999) به روش توصیفی مورد ارزیابی کمی و تحلیل واقع شده‏اند. نتایج این پژوهش، به‌عنوان نخستین کار فارسی در چارچوب واج‏شناسی بایبی، تمایز دوگانۀ فرهنگ و اجتماع را به‌خوبی در گفتمان فیلم‏های این دو دورۀ تاریخی آشکار می‏سازد. درواقع، مطالعۀ حاضر نشان می‏دهد که فشرده‏سازی به‌عنوان یک امر اجتماعی، خاستگاه فرهنگی دارد و همین خاستگاه فرهنگی آن است که تعبیرش در سبک زبانی یا در سبک گفتمانی اشخاص با پایگاه‏های اجتماعی مختلف را منعکس می‏سازد. همچنین مشخص می‏شود که مطالعۀ صورت‏های فشرده‏سازی‌شده فقط به تصمیم‏گیری در نوع کوتاه‏سازی محدود نمی‏شود و تفاوت‏های موجود میان صورت‏های فشرده‌شده به‌لحاظ ساختاری در اغلب موارد پدیده‏ای صرفاً ‏صرفی نیست و در برخی موارد به ملاحظات کاربردی و اجتماعی نظیر نوع جنسیت نیز بستگی دارد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7035_80177fe965b78111f4dfee80cfdc3689.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Argument (Direct Object) Left Dislocation in Persian; An Optimality Theory study مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار موضوع (مفعول مستقیم) در زبان فارسی؛ مطالعه‌ای براساس نظریۀ بهینگی 497 528 7036 10.52547/LRR.13.2.16 FA بهمن عبدلی یارآباد دانشجوی دکتری گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران. شناسه ارکید علی علیزاده دانشیار گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران. والی رضایی دانشیار گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. 0000-0002-6992-0425 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Researchers have variously investigated Persian in generative, functional, and cognitive frameworks, although, failed to account for some structural changes and the emergence of marked structures such as Left dislocation. The main goal of this article is to investigate left dislocation based on Optimality Theory. The present research is based on the descriptive-analytical method, and our corpus will include spoken Persian. The present paper aims to show that some constraints can be applied to form left dislocation in Persian, while ranking of the constraints represents the optimal form/forms. The constriants are based on constructional uints of Featurs and Conceptual Units which are properties of grammatical categories such as argument, or discourse-functioal ones, such as topic. The results show that applying the constraints of precedence, adjacency, and faithfulness on one side, and more features or conceptual units on the other side, the applied theory can further result in appropriate analysis of Persian cases. In other words, Syntax First Alignment has proved to be a promising framework for modeling Persian Left dislocation and can offer an alternative for syntactic frameworks based on hierarchical structure. The results, also, indicates that the features of [NEW], [ABOUT], and [CONTRAST] have key roles in Persisn Argument Left Dislocation. In addition, violating the constraints of Subject and Topic brings about unoptimality. بررسی زبان فارسی در چارچوب‏های زایشی و نقش‏گرا و نیز شناختی فراوان صورت گرفته است. این در‏حالی است که این رویکردها در تبیین تغییرات ساختی و ایجاد ساخت‏های نشاندار ازقبیل مبتداسازی به مشکل خورده‏اند. هدف اصلی پژوهش حاضر بررسی ساخت مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار در چارچوب نظریۀ بهینگی است. پژوهش پیش‌رو مبتنی‌بر روش توصیفی ـ تحلیلی است و پیکرۀ مورد بررسی ما گونۀ گفتاری زبان فارسی را شامل خواهد شد. مقاله حاضر می‏کوشد نشان دهد که در ایجاد ساخت مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار در زبان فارسی محدودیت‏هایی اعمال می‏شوند که ترتیب مرتبه‏بندی آن‏ها صورت یا صورت‏های بهینه را مشخص می‏سازد. در سازماندهی چنین محدودیت‏هایی از عناصر سازنده‏ای به نام مشخصه‏ها و واحدهای مفهومی استفاده می‏شود که ویژگی مقوله‏های دستوری از قبیل موضوع یا مقوله‏های گفتمان ـ نقشی ازقبیل مبتدا هستند. یافته‏های پژوهش نشان می‏دهد که با کاربرد محدودیت‏های تقدم، مجاورت و وفاداری از یک سو و مشخصه‏ها یا واحدهای مفهومی از سوی دیگر، در تجزیه و تحلیل نمونه‏های زبان فارسی می‏توان به نتایج مطلوب‏تری در تبیین چنین ساخت‏هایی رسید. به بیان دیگر، ثابت شده است که ترازمندی نحو ابتدا، می‏تواند انگاره‏سازی ساخت مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار فارسی را به‌نحو مطلوب به‌دست دهد و جایگزینی برای چارچوب‏های نحوی باشد که براساس ساخت سلسله‌مراتبی عمل می‏کنند. همچنین، نتایج پژوهش حاکی از آن است که مشخصه‏های [موضوع]، [نو بودن]، [دربارگی] و [تقابل] در ایجاد ساخت مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار موضوع در زبان فارسی نقش مهمی ایفا می‏کنند. علاوه‏بر‏این، تخطی از محدودیت‏های مربوط به فاعل و مبتدا به بهینه نبودن ساخت مبتداسازی ضمیرگذار منجر می‏شود.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7036_5c5a93a042235058b1ef7b0ac1e11b67.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Representation of Discourse Features of Lawyers on Judge Persuasion From Forensic Linguistics Perspective: A Case Study of the Discourse of Criminal Cases بازنمایی مؤلفه‌های گفتمانی وکلا در اقناع قاضی از منظر زبان‌شناسی حقوقی: مطالعۀ موردی گفتمان پرونده‌های کیفری 529 562 7037 10.52547/LRR.13.2.17 FA ژیلا مهربانی گروه آموزش زبان انگلیسی و زبان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، واحد کرمانشاه، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، کرمانشاه، ایران. کوروش صابری استادیار گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران. ابراهیم بدخشان دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی و زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ زبان و ادبیات، دانشگاه کردستان، سنندج، کردستان، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 The purpose of this study is to investigate the procedures of persuasion of judges by lawyers in the Iranian criminal and legal courts based on the critical discourse analysis approach. The methodological nature of this research is descriptive-analytic and the authors have collected the data by referring to courts, Tehran courts, and lawyers' offices, by studying hundreds of cases and observing dozens of interrogations in 1397, then analyzed 50 excerpts of conversations of participants (10 cases) based on Laclau and Mouffe's approach (1985,2001,2002). The main features of this approach are: signifier and signified, restlessness, antithesis, hegemony and fixation of meaning, power, myth and social imagination and metaphor, subject position and political subjectivity. According to the discourse of lawyers, it can be said that they use from the establishment of the semantic system of discourse including such words as client release, mitigation of punishment, proving the guilt of the accused, and seeking punishment for the accused, each of which establishes its own signifier with specific concepts, as influential cognitive and behavioral factors for persuasion. The main question of the present study is how the concept of persuasion is reflected in the conversations of lawyers in court discourse. The results showed that lawyers express their client's strengths and rival's weaknesses using backgrounding and foregrounding. So, in order to persuade judges to defend their client, lawyers use backgrounding to express rival’s weakness with the negative bias, and also they use foregrounding to provide their clients strengths with the positive bias. Introduction Language is not only a means of communication between human beings, but also as a social act that encompasses speech and writing. It’s worth noting that every text is produced in special situations and with different degrees of selection and in a ratio of power and ideology. Thus, no text can be found that is devoid of the author's personal views, etc., and just as there is no pure social reality, there is no neutral discourse. Since forensic linguistics is also a process of examining language in law discussions, it finds an inextricable link with discourse analysis, and in this regard, critical discourse analysis can also be mentioned. Forensic linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics that deals with the application of linguistic knowledge and methods in the context of law, legal language, crime, interrogation, trial, and judicial procedure. The present study aims to investigate the methods of using persuasion in court and law processes using the critical discourse analysis approach. It should be noted that the research on persuasion methods can be fully examined based on the approach of Laclau and Mouffe (1985, 2001, 2002). From this perspective, it is most used in the discourse of lawyers to persuade judges based on the component of opposition (foregrounding and backgrounding) as well as the signifier and signified component that Lacla and Mouffe (1985, 2001, 2002) have dealt with. Therefore, lawyers try to persuade the judge by using their client's discourse factors such as expressing remorse, confession, lack of proper physical condition, participation with the court in the case process. On the other hand, if we look closely at the environment in which we live, we can easily see persuasive efforts. In fact, persuasion has become an integral part of our lives. Advertisers who use mass media to sell their products usually use this linguistic tool. A political candidate who buys newspaper ads or the health organization that encourages people to quit smoking through a radio station. Also, in general, persuasion is the basic and ultimate goal of all types of communication behaviors. And also, individuals' thoughts, judgments, and memories are strongly formed by their current feelings, by their different behaviors and biases, by their initial perceptions of the main participants (lawyers, defendants, judges), as well as by a set of social factors. The present study consists of six sections. In the first part, we will discuss the introduction and generalities of the research. In the second part, we will get acquainted with the background of research and related studies. In the third section, we will introduce legal linguistics and the category of persuasion. In the fourth section, we will discuss the research methodology. In the fifth section, we will examine the lawyers' discourse in criminal cases and the category of the investigator’s persuasion, and in the sixth section, we will discuss the findings and results of the research. 2. Literature Review For decades, we have witnessed a growing methodology and an increasing number of linguists appearing in court as expert witnesses. Nevertheless, not even the name of this new science has been heard in the Iranian judicial system, which makes the need to study and introduce this science in the field of the Iranian judicial system important. Accordingly, the present study is one of those researches that can be used in this field and can be helpful. In the following, the authors intend to introduce some of the research related to the forthcoming research. Baghinipour (2004) in an article entitled "Persuasion and some of its measures: a discussion in critical discourse" examines the process of persuasion and considers it a phenomenon that can be used to overcome the mind and create the discussion of power. Findings have shown that different speech structures can be effective in shaping and changing mental models and social representations. Kia and Saeedi (2004) in a study entitled “The principles of communication, propaganda and persuasion” have stated that persuasion is a mutual linguistic factor whose purpose is to respond to the needs of the persuaded person, and generally in persuasion there is a two-way communication. Motavali (2005) in his research entitled “Public Opinion and Methods of Persuasion” has tried to make us familiar with the issues that deal with public opinion in such a way. Nami (2009) has also stated that in foreign language teaching academies in Iran, writing English with proper cohesion, coherence and suitable persuasiveness is a major challenge for those language learners who are studying English. This is because, writing is usually considered a secondary skill and is pushed to the margins of language classes due to its time consuming nature. Studies show that so far no research has been done on the methods of persuading judges based on the ideas of Laclau and Mouffe (1985, 2001, 2002). Therefore, in this article, we will address the question of what are the linguistic strategies and factors involved in the lawyers' discourse to persuade judges based on the approach of Laclau and Mouffe discourse analysis. 3. Research Methodology The methodological nature of this research is descriptive-analytic and the authors have collected the data by referring to courts, Tehran courts, and lawyers' offices, by studying hundreds of cases and observing dozens of interrogations in 1397, then analyzed 50 excerpts of conversations of participants (10 cases) based on Laclau and Mouffe's approach (1985,2001,2002). 4. Results The tool of the lawyer is word, sentence and discourse and s/he uses this tool in the form of speech and writing. Therefore, the lawyer must have cognitive and behavioral components that make his/her speech and writing expressive, effective, logical and effective in order to convince the judges. It is clear that these cognitive and behavioral components must be compatible with the law system in which the lawyer works, as well as with the social, moral, and cultural structure of the lawyer's workplace. Therefore, there are similarities between advocacy, teacher, sermon and some other professions, but in attorneyship, expressing or creating special concepts in the mind of the addressee is not the goal. Rather, it is important to use these characteristics, such as clauses and utterances, to prove the claimant and to prove right or wrong. This is where the presence of linguists in legal and judicial matters can be helpful. In general, the findings indicate that in the analysis of Laclau and Mouffeh's discourse, backgrounding is the expression of one's own weaknesses and strengths of the rival, and foregrounding is also the expression of one's own strengths and weaknesses of the rival. Thus, the results showed that lawyers express their client's strengths and rival's weaknesses using backgrounding and foregrounding. So, in order to persuade judges to defend their client, lawyers use backgrounding to express rival’s weakness with the negative bias, and also they use foregrounding to provide their clients strengths with the positive bias. Finally, among the fifty lawyers' interviews in the court discourse to convince the judges based on the components of Lacla and Mouffe (1985, 2001, 2002), the authors have stated the most common use of the available components as follows: Percentage Components 48% Foregrounding 44% backgrounding 8% Signifier & Signified پژوهش حاضر با هدف تحلیل گفتمان شیوه‏های اقناع قاضی توسط وکلا در دادگاه‏های کیفری و حقوقی ایران براساس رویکرد تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی انجام ‌شده است. ماهیت روش‏شناسی انجام این پژوهش به‌صورت توصیفی ـ ‏تحلیلی بوده و نگارندگان برای گردآوری داده‏ها با مراجعه به دادسراها، دادگاه‏های شهر تهران و دفاتر وکلا با مطالعۀ صدها پرونده و مشاهدۀ ده‏ها بازجویی در سال‏های 1397 و 1398 به روش فیش‏برداری متن پنجاه پاره‏گفت از مکالمات مشارکان گفتمان (10 پرونده) را در چارچوب رویکرد لاکلا و موفه (1985, 2001, 2002) موردبررسی قرار داده‏اند. مؤلفه‏های اصلی این رویکرد عبارت‌اند از: دال و مدلول، ضدیت و غیریت، هژمونی و تثبیت معنا، قدرت، اسطوره، تصور اجتماعی، موقعیت سوژه‏ای و سوژگی سیاسی. با توجه به گفتمان وکلا می‏توان گفت که وکلا از تثبیت نظام معنایی گفتمان شامل واژه‏هایی چون آزادی موکل، تخفیف در مجازات، اثبات جرم متهم و تقاضای مجازات برای متهم که هر کدام از این نظام‏های معنایی با مفاهیمی خاص به تثبیت دال‏های خود می‏پردازند، به‏مثابۀ عوامل شناختی و رفتاری اثرگذار برای اقناع‏سازی استفاده می‏کنند. پرسش اساسی پژوهش حاضر آن است که مفهوم اقناع چگونه در گفت‌وگوهای وکلا در گفتمان دادگاه نمود پیدا می‏کند. نتایج نشان داد که وکلا با استفاده از برجسته‏سازی و حاشیه‌رانی به بیانِ نقاط قوت موکل خود و نقاط ضعف رقیب می‏پردازند. یافته‌ها حاکی از آن است که وکلا به‌منظور اقناع‏سازی قضات جهت دفاع از موکل خود، با سوگیری منفی از حاشیه‏رانی و بیان نقاط ضعف رقیب و با سوگیری مثبت از برجسته‏سازی و ارائۀ نقاط قوت موکل خود استفاده می‏کنند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7037_7c39a5f991bef4a1e34187677a65871d.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Study of Place of Noun in Persian Language Based on Cognitive Approach بررسی جایگاه اسم در زبان فارسی از دیدگاه شناختی 563 585 7038 10.52547/LRR.13.2.18 FA سعید اکبری دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان‌شناسی، واحد تاکستان، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تاکستان، ایران 0000-0003-1659-3640 نازنین امیرارجمندی استادیار گروه زبان‌شناسی، واحد تاکستان، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تاکستان، ایران Journal Article 1970 01 01 The present research aims to investigate the place of noun in Persian language based on cognitive approach by relying on the framework of Lanckager’s cognitive grammar (2008). To achieve this goal, authors have selected 150 Persian simple nouns from Sokhan Dictionary (1382) accidentally. The method of the present research is descriptive-analytical and data collecting is based on library studies. After the study of collected data of research, authors concluded that in Persian language, the discussion on being countable or non-countable of noun doesn’t make much sense and unlike cognitive approach mass nouns are the same as countable nouns, which receive plural –s morpheme and together with proper nouns, they constitute a different class of nouns. Also in Persian language as well as cognitive approach, pronouns can replace nouns. 1. Introduction Background: One of the most important grammatical categories is noun, which has been considered in most linguistic studies, and due to the frequent presence of this grammatical category in language sentences, it can be given a special position in the field of grammar as well as word structure. In today's advanced world, where scientists and inventors are making new inventions and discoveries every day and selling them to the markets, the centers and authorities responsible for naming these products have faced a huge challenge. Making new domestic products, updating and editing, school and university textbooks based on modern science, updating Persian dictionaries, translating borrowed words in technical, engineering, medical, pharmaceutical and even military fields show the importance of studying the status of nouns in Persian based on an up-to-date and new theoretical framework in the field of linguistics. Although much research has been done on the grammatical category of nouns and distinguishing this category from other grammatical categories inside or outside Iran, the position of nouns in Persian has not been studied in detail from a cognitive point of view.To this end , this study aims to investigate the position of nouns in Persian language based on the theoretical and grammatical framework of Langacker (2008). Theoretical framework The theoretical framework of the present study is Langacker’s (2008) grammar. Cognitive linguistics can be divided into two broad areas: cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar. In grammar, language is considered as a mental and cognitive system, and therefore the issue of language independence from other cognitive powers is not raised, and a comprehensive understanding of the language system is not possible without a complete understanding of the cognitive system. Also, the independence of linguistic domains is rejected, and semantics does not mean literal or linguistic meaning and does not believe in semantic characteristics. Rather, the literal and non-literal meanings are metaphorical, virtual, metaphorical, and context-based. The grammar proposed by Langacker (2008) is the most prominent framework of cognitive linguistics. In describing grammar, Langacker (2008) considers language as a part of cognition and believes that linguistic research should be dedicated to understanding the human mind. In Langacker's grammar (2008), nouns are divided into two main subsets of countable nouns and common or uncountable nouns. Langacker (2008) also divides nouns into two groups of pronouns and specific nouns in terms of semantic usage. Langacker's (2008) cognitive approach has introduced the distinction between countable nouns and uncountable or general nouns in taking the plural marker. Thus, the noun that receives the plural is countable and the noun that does not receive the plural is uncountable. Research questions: In this study, the following questions have been raised: 1. To what extent does the pattern of countable and uncountable nouns in Persian correspond to the cognitive pattern? 2. What class of nouns in Persian does the pattern of common nouns which are one of the two main classes that make up nouns in the cognitive approach correspond? Research method: The research method of the present study was descriptive-analytical and the method of collecting research data was based on library studies and random sampling. To investigate the status of nouns in Persian from a cognitive perspective under the theoretical framework of Langacker (2008) grammar, the authors randomly selected 150 simple Persian names from Sokhan dictionary (2003). 2. Results the results showed that in Persian the discussion of countable or non-countable nouns does not make much sense. Contrary to the cognitive view which considers countable nouns and common nouns as the two main classes of nouns, in Persian, common nouns are the same as countable nouns and receive the plural marker, and together with specific nouns, they form a distinct class of nouns. Also, in Persian, as in the cognitive view, the pronoun replaces the noun. Examining the simple nouns from a cognitive point of view showed that Persian grammar has significant differences in the category of countable nouns, uncountable nouns, general nouns, specific nouns and pronouns compared to Langacker (2008) grammatical pattern. In Persian, general, specific, and some personal pronouns do not receive the plural marker (s), which is in stark contrast to Langacker (2008)'s grammar. Also in Persian, some nouns that are inherently uncountable, such as water, also receive the plural marker (s). Here, the language instinct of the Persian speaker is also involved, which is also a case of contradiction between Persian grammar and cognitive grammar. 3. Conclusion In general, in Persian, countable and uncountable nouns are on one side, and general and specific nouns are also on the other side, which do not correspond in general to Langacker’s (2008) grammatical model. هدف از پژوهش حاضر بررسی جایگاه اسم در زبان فارسی از دیدگاه شناختی ذیل چارچوب نظری دستور شناختی لانگاکر (2008) است. به‌منظور نیل به این هدف، نگارندگان 150 اسم بسیط فارسی را به‌طور تصادفی از فرهنگ بزرگ سخن (1382) انتخاب کردند. روش تحقیق پژوهش حاضر توصیفی ـ تحلیلی بوده و روش گردآوری داده‌ها براساس مطالعات کتابخانه‌ای است. نگارندگان پس از بررسی و تحلیل داده‌های جمع‌آوری‌شدۀ پژوهش، این‌گونه نتیجه گرفته‌اند که در زبان فارسی بحث قابل‌شمارش بودن یا غیرقابل‌شمارش بودن اسم معنای چندانی ندارد و برخلاف دیدگاه شناختی که اسم‌های قابل‌شمارش و اسم‌های عام را دو طبقۀ اصلی اسامی می‌داند، در زبان فارسی اسم‌های عام، همان اسم‌های قابل‌شمارش‌اند و نشانۀ جمع دریافت می‌کنند و به همراه اسم‌های خاص، یک طبقه از انواع اسم‌ها را تشکیل می‌دهند، همچنین در زبان فارسی نیز همانند دیدگاه شناختی، ضمیر جانشین اسم می‌شود.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7038_b19d3c9e40467f65287c078ea8970b83.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 A Discourse-Pragmatic Study of in & Ã¢n (this & that) in Daily Persian Conversations ابعاد کاربردشناختی و گفتمانی عبارات اشاره‌ای «این» و «آن» در گفت‌وگوهای روزمرۀ زبان فارسی 587 621 7039 10.52547/LRR.13.2.19 FA رمضان رمضان پور دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران 0000-0002-5141-7151 محمد عموزاده دانشگاه سون یات سن، چین/ استاد گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران 0000-0001-8964-7967 حدائق رضایی استادیار گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران 0000-0001-9541-7551 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Three types of meaning i.e., propositional, textual and interpersonal were acknowledged for language in the tradition of functional studies. In light of such appraoch, this study aims: 1) to describe different types of meanings of in (this) and ân (that) in Persian and, 2) to show that how basics of grammaticalization can be applied to provide a synchronic survey of the semantic variety of the aforementioned dectic expressions as discourse markers in Persian. On the basis of grammaticalization in terms of Traugott & Dasher (2002), this paper examines the different uses of these linguistic elements by looking at their propositional, textual and interpersonal meanings. The analysis indicates that in & ân are used exophorically, anaphorically and textually in their referential meaning and also used in the bridging contexts. Moreover, the investigation shows unlike ân, the semantic changes of in extends beyond the bridging contexts. So in (this) as a discourse marker, functions textually, subjectively and inter-ubjectively. Grammaticalization of the deictic expressions supports Traugott & Dasher's clines. However, indexicalizing speaker's spatial aspects, in & ân have impersonal subjective meaning. Therefore, Traugott & Dasher's semantic cline, should be modified in way of impersonal subjective > personal subjective > inter-subjective to describe the behavior of these linguistic elements in this respect. Introduction Although studying different uses and semantic development of deictic expressions in Persian seems to be perciptible at first, it isnot that much easy to convey the sheer complexity of the situation. This paper tries to study different pragmatic and semantic dimentions of these linguistic expressions on the basis of grammaticalization, which is essentially a diachronic concept. Using samples of in (this) and ân (that) in daily Persian conversations, this study aims: 1) to describe different types of their meanings and, 2) to show that how basics of grammaticalization can be applied to provide a synchronic survey of the semantic variety of the aforementioned dectic expressions as discourse markers in Persian. 2. Literature Review Most studies pertaining to diectic expressions in (this) and ân (that) in different languages emphasizes their role in expressing speaker’s attitudes and feelings and also discourse management in addition to their propositional meaning (Perera & Strauss, 2015, p.36). Persian researchers (Amid, 1963, Moeen, 1995, Sadri & Hakami, 2002, Moshkvar, 1971), adopting a traditional approach and insisting upon the concept of referentiality, commomly declared that in and ân are used to refer to near and distant respectively. However, what has been ignored in such studies was that they just paid attention to their referential meanings at sentence level and did not cover the discourse-pragmatic dimentions. 3. Methodology The data of this study were obtained from fifteen hours of daily Persian conversations in a one-year period. From the mentioned corpus, 260 cases of using the deictic expressions in and ân were identified from different situations and in various constructions. To conduct this research, all 260 cases were first categorized into propositional, textual, and interpersonal meanings, following Halliday (1970, 1979), Trauggot (1982), and Brinton (1996). Different uses of the deictic expressions were then classified based on the classification propopsed by Halliday and Hassan (1976), Lyons (1977), Fillmore (1982), Levinson (1983, 2004) and Diessel (1999) in terms of propositional meaning. After that, according to Heine (2002), items that simultaneously had a propositional meaning at the sentence level as well as discourse meanings (textual and interpersonal) were categorized into bridging contexts. Continuing to examine the types of meanings and uses of the expressions, the cases that functioned as a discourse marker were identified and were put in textual, personal and interpersonal categories based on the concepts presented. Lastly, their semantic variations were examined based on the views of Trauggot and Dasher (2002), analyzed from the perspective of synchronic grammaticalization and the proposed clines of these developments were presented. 4. Results The analysis indicates that in & ân are used exphorically, anaphorically and textually in their referential meaning and also used in the bridging contexts to function for the retrieval of linguistic information, projection, feeling and emotion expression, avoidance of unpleasant concepts and referent identification. Moreover, the investigation shows unlike ân, the semantic changes of in extends beyond the bridging contexts. So in as a discourse marker, textually has a function in changing the topical trends and creating a pause to formulate the upcoming discourse. It is subjectively used to designate and emphasize the upcoming discourse and to create a contrast and inter-subjectively functions in speech acts such as requesting, asking and advising. Grammaticalization of the deictic expressions supports Traugott & Dasher's clines. However, indexicalizing speaker's spatial aspects, in & ân have impersonal subjective meaning involving the grammaticalization process. Therefore, Traugott & Dasher's semantic cline, should be modified in way of impersonal subjective > personal subjective > inter-subjective to describe the behavior of these linguistic elements in this respect. In sum, the current study used a descriptive-analytical methodology to describe the discourse-pragmatic aspects of in & ân and indicated that these linguistic elements have different types of uses which the notion of grammaticalization (e.g. Traugott and Dashar, 2002; and Brinton, 2008) provide a solid theoretical framework to describe and analyze these expressions as discourse markers in Persian. In sum, the current study used a descriptive-analytical methodology to describe the discourse-pragmatic aspects of in & ân and indicated that these linguistic elements have different types of uses which the notion of grammaticalization (e.g. Traugott and Dashar, 2002; and Brinton, 2008) provide a solid theoretical framework to describe and analyze these expressions as discourse markers in Persian. در سنت مطالعاتی نقش‌گرایانه برای زبان سه کارکرد گزاره‏ای (مفهومی)، متنی و بینِ‏فردی ملحوظ شد. در راستای این رویکرد، پژوهش حاضر بر آن است معانی مختلف «این» و «آن» را در فارسی توصیف کرده، و نشان دهد چگونه مبانی دستوری‏شدگی می‏تواند برای بررسی هم‌زمانی تنوع معنایی این عناصر زبانی به‌منزلۀ نقش‏نمای گفتمانی به‌کار بسته شود. به این منظور، با استناد به الگوی نظری برخی زبان‏شناسان (Traugott & Dasher, 2002) از ابزار و مفاهیم این نظریه بهره گرفته شد و انواع کاربرد این عناصر زبانی در سه بافت گزاره‏ای (مفهومی)، انتقالی و گفتمانی تحلیل شد. تحلیل داده‏ها،‏ نشان می‏دهد «این» و «آن» در معنای گزاره‏ای ـ مفهومی به‌صورت برون‏زبانی، مرجع‌داری و متنی و همچنین در بافت‏های انتقالی برای بازیابی اطلاعات زبانی، فرافکن اشاره‏ای، بیان عواطف و احساسات، اجتناب از بیان صریح مفاهیم ناخوشایند و تشخیص مدلول به‌کار گرفته می‏شود. بررسی داده‏ها همچنین نشان می‏دهد، دستوری‏شدگی «این»، پس از بافت‏های انتقالی ادامه یافته و به‌منزلۀ نقش‏نمای گفتمانی در تغییر روند موضوعی گفتمان و ایجاد وقفه برای صورت‏بندی بخش آتی گفتمان (متنی)، برجسته‏سازی و تأکید روی بخش آتی گفتمان و ایجاد تقابل و بیان ارزیابی (ذهنی) و در بیان درخواست، پرسش و توصیه (بینِ‏ذهنی) به ایفای نقش می‏پردازد. تنوع معنایی و دستوری‏شدگی و عناصر مذکور گرایش‏ تغییرات معنایی تراگوت و داشِر را تأیید می‏کند. بااین‌حال، عناصر مذکور با توجه به اینکه در آغازِ فرایند دستوری‏شدگی از معنای ذهنی برخوردارند، طیفِ غیر‏ذهنی > ذهنی > بینِ‏ذهنی تراگوت و داشر (2002) نمی‏تواند روند تغییرات معنایی عناصر مذکور را به‌درستی توصیف کند. لذا، طیفِ مذکور به‌صورت ذهنیِ‏ غیرشخصی> ذهنیِ شخصی > بینِ‏ذهنی پیشنهاد می‏شود. درمجموع، پژوهش نشان داد عبارات زبانی مذکور دارای تنوع معنایی و کاربردی بوده که اصول دستوری‏شدگی می‏تواند این پدیده را به‌خوبی توضیح دهد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7039_cc8090c4d2791cdd9cd2cb3c24296190.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 The Survey of Acoustic Evidences and the Degree of Parsability in Persian Prefixâs Derived Words in Speech Processing شواهد آکوستیکی و بررسی میزان تقطیع‌پذیری واژه‌های مشتق پیشوندی زبان فارسی در پردازش گفتار 623 654 7040 10.52547/LRR.13.2.20 FA مریم حمصیان اتفاق دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران بتول علی نژاد دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران 0000-0002-1230-3282 عادل رفیعی استادیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران Journal Article 1970 01 01 The acoustic information can be evidence for many considered matters in other linguistics areas, especially in spoken morphology and speech processing. The present study investigates the Persian derivational words of prefixes and the degree of parsability in processing, understanding, and receiving the meaning of derived words by some acoustic evidence. For this reason, the derived words of the prefixes «nɑ», «ham», and «farɑ» and their bases were extracted from the Institute of Humanities. We chose two parsable and non-parsable derived words of each derivational prefix and put them in carrier sentences. Then, We investigate the acoustic features such as duration, pitch, formants, intensity, duration of maximum intensity, and the clarity of transition point The results show that the relative duration of parsable words is more than non-parsable words. The degree of co-articulation in pitch frequency, first, second, and third formant frequency of non-parsable words in transition points of affix and base and statically position of affix is more than parsable words because of incorporation and without potential pauses. In non-parsable words, the relative maximum duration of intensity is more with the smooth trend. So, the clarity of formants in parsable words is more than in non-parsable words at the transition points. 1. Introduction According to the presence of the structure of derived words in spoken language, the mental lexical processing can be assessed by its phonetic expression and the variations of morpho-phonetic structures can be surveyed in derived words. According to Plag (2014), we can use morpho-phonetic variations for morphological theories and lexical processing. Hay and Bayeen (2003) through the investigation of phonotactics in parsable and non-parsable derived words in the Complexity-Based Ordering approach considered that in non-parsable words the boundary of affix and base is not discerned very easily due to the affix and base are in phonological Entanglement and during the morphological processing, it’s considered as a whole word because the frequency of the derived word is more than the frequency of its base. This approach by using spoken morphology criteria provides some proofs based on the parsability of the base from the affix. In this regard Hay (2007), Plag and et. (2017) by using the acoustic feature of duration investigated the co-articulation of parsable words. They believed that the co-articulation in non-parsable words is more than the parsable words because in non-parsable words the effect of the adjacent phoneme in the transition point is more. 2. Research Hypothesis This study tries to answer the question of whether in Persian derived words the acoustic features of duration, pitch, intensity, and clarity of the transition point of affix and base can explain the degree of parsability. The results of this research can be used in the theories of the mental lexicon, speech producing, understanding, and perception of the lexical meaning. 3. Research Method In the present study, we chose three prefixes of «nɑ-», «ham-», and «farɑ-» from Hemasian (2019). We selected two derived words of each prefix in the way that the non-parsable derived word with high token frequency is placed below the trend line of its scatter plot and the parsable derived word with high token frequency is placed above the trend line of its scatter plot. The chosen words are Hamdasti and Hamdardi, Namardi and Namaree, Foruraftan, and foruravande. For creating the same situation of speech we put the derived words in the same carrier sentences and the same position. 4. Result In this study, we investigate some acoustic evidence in the degree of parsability for Persian-derived words. For determining whether the duration feature can have any effect on the perception of the degree of parsability of affix from the base, it was found that affix and base duration and relative duration in non-parsable derived words are less than parsable words. Also, the duration differentiation of the last phoneme of the prefix and the first phoneme of the base in non-parsable words are more than in parsable words. These results are in accordance with Hay (2007). Then our hypothesis based on the duration of Persian derived words can be used as a piece of evidence for the degree of parsability is confirmed. In responding to this question that the pitch and formants can be described the morphological structure of derived words according to the transition point in the attachment slot of the affix to the base and the static position of the affix, it showed that the degree of co-articulation in non-parsable words based on the continuity and no potential pause is more. For answering the effect of intensity on the morphological structure of derived words according to findings it determined that in non-parsable words raising duration is more and intensity is very smooth to reach maximize. Then our hypothesis based on the relative raising intensity in non-parsable words is confirmed. In responding to the degree of derived words parsability and the relation with clarity of transition point and with concerning the formants by mapping spectrum it found that the clarity in a transition point in parsable words is more than in non-parsable words. Also, in the transition point, we can see the beginning of the next phoneme very easily. Ultimately, it was found that we can determine the degree of parsability in prefixed derived words by acoustic evidence. اطلاعات آکوستیکی می‏تواند به‌منزلۀ شاهدی برای بسیاری از مسائل مطرح در حوزه‌های دیگر زبان‌شناسی به‌خصوص صرف گفتاری و پردازش گفتاری باشد. مقالۀ حاضر با استفاده از واژه‏های مشتق پیشوندی زبان فارسی به بررسی شواهد آکوستیکی دال‏بر میزان تقطیع‏پذیری آن‌ها در پردازش، درک و دریافت معنی پرداخته است. برای این منظور واژه‏های مشتق از پیشوندهای «نا-»، «هم-»، «فرو-» و پایه‏های آن‌ها همراه با بسامد رخداد نمونۀ آن‌ها از پیکرۀ پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی استخراج شد. از هر پیشوند دو واژۀ تقطیع‏پذیر و تقطیع‏ناپذیر انتخاب و با قرار دادن آن‌ها در جملات حامل هم‌بسته‏های دیرش، زیروبمی، سازه‏ها، شدت، دیرش خیز و شفافیت منطقۀ گذر بررسی شد. یافته‏ها نشان داد دیرش نسبی واژه‏های تقطیع‏پذیر بیشتر از واژه‏های تقطیع‏ناپذیر است. در منطقۀ گذر وند و پایه و در حالت ایستایی وند واژه‏های تقطیع‏ناپذیر به‌علت پیوستگی میزان هم‏تولیدی در بسامد زیروبمی، سازۀ اول، سازۀ دوم و سازۀ سوم آن‌ها بیشتر از واژه‏های تقطیع‏پذیر است. در واژه‏های تقطیع‏ناپذیر، دیرش نسبی شدت خیز بیشتر و روند هموارتری را نشان می‏دهد. همچنین در واژه‏های تقطیع‏پذیر، شفافیت تولید سازه‏ها در منطقۀ گذر بیشتر از واژه‏های تقطیع‏ناپذیر است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7040_1def1713ebf17722cbe300cfc1c88558.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 A Comparative Study on Conceptualisations and Linguistic Encodings of Smell Sense in Persian and Russian from Cutural-Cognitive Point of View بررسی مقایسه‌ای مفهوم‌سازی‌ها و رمزگذاری‌های زبانی حس‌ بویایی در زبان‌های فارسی و روسی امروز از منظر زبان‌شناسی فرهنگی ـ شناختی 655 689 7041 10.52547/LRR.13.2.21 FA شهلا شریفی دانشیار گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران. 0000-0001-8662-6335 محمدجواد یزدان مهر استادیار گروه زبان روسی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران 0000-0002-3129-4916 Journal Article 1970 01 01 This research aims at studying the conceptualizations and linguistic encodings of smell sense in Persian and Russian from Cultural-Cognitive Linguistics point of view, using Sharifian’s (2017) and Kövecses’ (2018) frameworks. Research data have been gathered through the internet from different weblogs and sites, but for extracting the synonyms and collocations of the word “smell”, dictionaries of these languages have been used too. The results show that in both languages the smell sense is applied both as the source and target domain in metaphors and both the higher and lower senses are used as the source domain in their synesthetic constructions. Two macro-metaphors , GOOD IS SMELLY and BAD IS SMELLY can be seen in both languages. "Suspecting, finding out/knowing, vanishing, filling, representing(something) and getting into trouble/occurring a difficulty are some of shared conceptualizations in these two languages. Apart from conceptualisations, some similarities and differences can be seen in the linguistic encodings in these two languages. Similarities confirm Kövecses (2010) in his belief that some conceptual metaphors in the sensory domain of languages are nearly universal because of the common experiences of all human beings. Differences reflect the Sharifian’s idea (2017) that says the origin of concetualisations is cultural cognition which is not totally the same, because of the asymmetric distribution, even in one community. Introduction Sense of smell is one of the oldest seneses and one of the important ways of experiencing and .. the world around, the cognition which is the basis of different conceptualisations which atleast partly are represented in the languages. The objective of the present research is to determine the conceptualisations and linguistic encoding of the sense of smell in the Persian and Russian languages. To obtain this aim, Sharifian’s theoretical and analytical frame works of Vultural LInguistics ,generally, and the his frame work for emotions, particularly have been used. Research Quesstions of the study are as following: -What are the conceptualisations and linguistic encodings of sense of smell in the Persian and Russian languages? -What are the differences and similarities of the conceptualisations and linguistic encodings of the sense of smell in these two languages? 2. Literature Review Not much works have been done on senses from linguistics or specifically cultural point of view in Persian. The research have done are mostly focused on synestethia as a figure of speech in literary works, especially in poems. Here are some of them: Elhami(1378) has studies on synestethia in Bidel Dehlavi’s sonnets. Karimi(1378) has worked on this figure of speech in the Persian poems from the past to the present to show that it was used limitedly in the past but was more frequent in Hinidi style and now adays it’s quite common. Karimi, Gholami Mehmandoosti and Mobasheri(1392) studied the sense of taste and its synestethia in Rumi’s poems. Amirhajoiloo(1393) worked on synestethia in Vahshi Bafghi’s poems. Sa’dzadeh and Ojaghalizadeh() have a research on the structure of synestethia in Simin Behbahani’s poems. Mahmoodi and Rashki() have a study on Synestethia in Nasrollah mardani’s poems and Bahmani motlagh(1396) have a paper on Shafiee Kadkani’s poems. Research works on the sense of smell from linguistics point of view are not also considerable in the Russian language. The one which is related to the present study some how is the asalayeva (2011)’s work on the collocation of the sense of smell with different words and phrases and he has come to this conclusion that the good smell and bad smell have different collocations in the Russian language. 3. Methodology This is a qualitative research which is done by a descriptive-analytic method on some Persian and Russian data. To gather the research data first the Kövecses’ lexical approach was used and the members of the smell category were found through different dictionaries of both languages. After that five most frequent members were considered and searched in the syber space to find the natural uses of these members in the persian and Russian utterances and specify the conceptualisations, linguistic encodings and the cultural schemas of the smell category members in these two languages. The search was continuing by the time that no new conceptualization or linguistic encoding was found. 4. Results As a whole two main macro metaphors are found in these two languages regarding the sense of smell: BAD IS SMELLY and GOOD IS SMELLY, But ofcourse GOOD SMELLs GOOD and BAD SMELLS BAD, but neutrally when the sense of smell is used in these two languages, the conceptualisations of the sense of smell are negative. The spearkers of both the languages use the sense of smell as both the target and source domain in conceptualisations. In syenestethia they use both the higher and lower senses as target domain so there are some similarities between these two languages regarding the way they use the sense of smell but there are also some diffrenses in the conceptualisations and especially in the linguistic encodings. 5. Discussion The findings of the paper show that the way we conceptualize our world and encode in the language is affected by our experiences, cognition and culture. So while the Persian speakers smells trouble when they get into trouble, The Russian speakers smell the white oil when they are in trouble or for the Russian speakers the bad smell is crawlling on the earth and bad smell can make you deaf.These differences can not be accidental and they can show the different way of looking at the world by the speakers of these two languages. 6. Conclusion As a whole we found some similarities and differences in conceptualisations and encodings of the sense of smell between these two languages. The similarities approve the Kövecses’s view saying that there are the common features in conceptualisations of the senses in the languages of the world maybe because of the common way we experience the world through the senses and the diffrences are along with the Sharifian’s idea that says since the origion of the conceptualisations is the cultural cognition, they can not be the same in different languages. در این جستار مفهوم‏سازی‏ها و رمزگذاری‏های زبانی حس بویایی را در دو زبان فارسی و روسی امروز از منظر زبان‌شناسی فرهنگی ـ شناختی با بهره‏گیری از چارچوب‏های شریفیان (2017) و کووچش (2018) بررسی می‏کنیم. داده‏های اصلی از وبلاگ‏ها و صفحات مجازی و به‏طور کلی از اینترنت اخذ شده است، اما برای بررسی مترادف‌های واژۀ «بو» و هم‌نشین‏های آن از فرهنگ لغت‏های این‏دو زبان هم استفاده ‏‏شده است. نتایج این تحقیق نشان می‏دهد که در دو زبان فارسی و روسی حس بویایی هم به‌عنوان حوزه مبدأ و هم مقصد نقش‏آفرینی کرده و در حس‏آمیزی از هر دو مرتبۀ بالاتر و پایین‏تر از خود به‌عنوان حوزه مبدأ استفاده ‏می‏کند. در حوزۀ مفهوم‏سازی دو کلان استعارۀ «خوب بودار است» و «بد بودار است» در هر دو زبان وجود دارد. «ظن‏بردن/ مشکوک‏بودن، فهمیدن/ پی‏بردن، برطرف‏شدن، پرکردن، نشان از چیزی داشتن، به دردسر افتادن/ خراب‏شدن اوضاع» ازجمله مفهوم‏سازی‌های مشترک این دو زبان است. درعین‏حال تفاوت‏هایی هم در این دو زبان در مفهوم‏سازی حس بویایی وجود دارد. جدا از مفهوم‏سازی‏ها، در رمزگذاری‏های زبانی هم شباهت‏ها و تفاوت‏هایی بین دو زبان مشاهده ‏می‏شود. شباهت‏ها در تأیید نظر کووچش (2010) مبنی بر نزدیک به همگانی‏بودن برخی استعاره‏های مفهومی در حوزه حس‏ها در زبان‏های مختلف است که از نظر او ناشی از تجارب مشترک انسان‏هاست و تفاوت‏ها هم منعکس‏کنندۀ نظر شریفیان (2017) است که معتقد است آبشخور مفهوم‏سازی‏ها، شناخت فرهنگی است که حتی در یک جامعۀ زبانی هم، به‌دلیل توزیع نامتقارن، ممکن است کاملاً یکسان نباشد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7041_7c93ebe873ef213123c8af4b188e7558.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 13 2 2022 05 22 Metaphorical Conceptualization of Bravery in Contemporary Persian and English Prose مفهوم‌سازی استعاری شجاعت در متون معاصر زبان فارسی و انگلیسی 691 716 7042 10.52547/LRR.13.2.22 FA عشرت ثقفی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تهران جنوب، تهران، ایران. آزیتا افراشی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران مصطفی عاصی استاد زبان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-3799-1103 عبدالحسین فرزاد دانشیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 This paper attempts to investigate the conceptualization of conceptual metaphors of Bravery in the contemporary Persian and English Prose. The main question of this study is: "How the concept of bravery which is one of the target domain of Morality from Kovecses's point of view (2010: 23) is constructed and understood in the minds of Persian and English speakers. To achieve this goal, the authors prepared a corpus of 400 Persian sentences containing the word of شجاعت and its synonyms and also 400 English sentences containing the word of Bravery and its synonyms from the two Bases of Persian Language database (PLDB) and contemporary British national (BNC) prose , and examined them through cognitive analysis of the extracted conceptual metaphors. A statistical study of the two figures showed that as a prototype, Persian speakers consider Bravery as an "object" and English speakers as a "property". There are also many common source domains shared by the two bodies: "property", "object", "physical force", "upward direction", "action", "matter" and "human behavior". Although the Persian and English languages have many common conceptual metaphors for conceptualization of Bravery, there are some differences between them including the different source domains between the two languages which are as follows: the source domain of "path" which is belonged to Persian and the source domain of "show" which is belonged to English. The theoretical Framework of the present research is based on the conceptual metaphor theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Kovecses's (2015). 1. Introduction Universality and variation in metaphors of languages have become the main concern of many researchers to uncover the conceptual system of language speakers and consequently to discover the similarities and differences between the languages. lakoff and Johnson (1980, p.3) mention that the way we think, what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor. The present study also attempts to investigate the conceptual metaphors of Bravery in Persian and English prose to find the similarities and the differences of the two languages. 2. Research question The main question of this study is: "How the concept of bravery which is one of the target domain of Morality from Kovecses's point of view (2010: 23) is constructed and understood in the minds of Persian and English speakers? 3. Hypothesis The comparison of metaphorical expressions of Bravery in Persian and English prose show some similarities in the expansion of using the specific source domains. 4. Literature Review Kövecses (2005, P. 35) explains that "it should come as no surprise that at least some conceptual metaphors can be and are found in many languages. If some kinds of conceptual metaphors are based on embodied experience that is universal, these metaphors should occur – at least potentially – in many languages and cultures around the world". Lakoff and Johnson (1980) discussed about the conceptual metaphor of HAPPINESS IS UP in English. Ning Yu (1995, 1998) noticed that Chinese shares with English all the basic metaphor source domains for happiness: UP, LIGHT and FLUID IN A CONTAINER, except the metaphor HAPPINESS IS FLOWERS IN THE HEART which English does not have. According to Ning Yu (1998), the application of this metaphor reflects "the more introverted character of Chinese". 5. Methodology The theoretical Framework of the present research is based on the conceptual metaphor theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). Lakoff and Johnson (1980, p. 6) argue that human thought processes are largely metaphorical and the human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined. Kovecses (2015, p.17) discusses the construal operations that bear directly on abstract concepts including: abstraction, schematization, attention, perspective, metonymy, metaphor, conceptual integration and Differential cognitive styles. Kovecses (2005, p. 9) also believes that metaphor is a many-sided phenomenon that involves not only language, but also the conceptual system, as well as social–cultural structure and neural and bodily activity. This paper also attempts to investigate the conceptualization of the conceptual metaphors of Bravery in the minds of Persian and English speakers verifying contemporary prose in Persian and English. To achieve the goal, the writers prepared a corpus of 800 Persian and English sentences containing the words of Bravery and their synonyms from the two Bases: Persian Language Data Base (PLDB) and Contemporary British National (BNC). Then the writers managed to identify and extract the relevant conceptual metaphors of Bravery from the corpus. The analysis of the two sets of metaphors reveals some important information: The high frequency source domains of conceptualizing Bravery in Persian and English languages show that Persian speakers consider Bravery as an "OBJECT" and English speakers consider it as " PROPERTY ". The common source domains of Bravery shared by the two groups are as follows: "PROPERTY", " OBJECT ", "PHYSICAL FORCE", "UPWARD DIRECTION", "ACTION", "MATTER" and "HUMAN BEHAVIOR". The findings also show some differences between conceptual metaphors which reveal the specific mapping of Bravery significantly: the source domain of "PATH" which is specific to Persian and the source domain of "SHOW" which is specific to English. The findings of the present study support the Embodiment theory of Lakoff (1999) and Kövecses's claim (2005) that the same bodily experiences lead to the same bodily perceptions and conceptions. Thus the universal conceptual metaphors, which arise from bodily experiences, perceptions and conceptions, will be the same all around the world. Nevertheless sometimes the different surrounding environment (culture) affects and changes these similar universal conceptual metaphors. Kovecses (2005, p. 13) proposes the two large groups of causes of metaphor variations as: differential experience and the differential application of universal cognitive processes which both can create interculturally and intraculturally different metaphors. پژوهش حاضر به بررسی چگونگی مفهوم‏سازی استعاره‏های مفهومی «شجاعت» در متون معاصر زبان فارسی و انگلیسی می‏پردازد. مسئلۀ اصلی این پژوهش آن است که مفهوم «شجاعت» که از دیدگاه کووچش2010, P.23)) یکی از مفاهیم حوزۀ مقصد اخلاق است چگونه در ذهن فارسی‏زبانان و انگلیسی‏زبانان معاصر ساخته و پرداخته می‏شود؟ برای دست‏یابی به این هدف، نویسندگان، پیکره‏ای متشکل از چهارصد جملۀ حاوی واژۀ «شجاعت» و مترادف‏های آن و نیز چهارصد جملۀ حاوی واژۀ «bravery» و مترادف‏های آن را از دو پیکرۀ متون معاصر پایگاه داده‏های زبان فارسی (PLDB) و متون معاصر ملی بریتانیا (BNC) جمع‏آوری کردند و از طریق تحلیل شناختیِ استعاره‏هایِ مفهومیِ استخراج شده، موردبررسی قرار دادند. مطالعۀ آماری حاصل از این بررسی نشان داد که به‌طور پیش‏نمونه، فارسی‏زبانان شجاعت را «شیء» و انگلیسی‏زبانان، «دارایی» می‏پندارند. همچنین حوزه‏های مبدأ مشترک زیادی میان دو پیکره به‌چشم می‏خورد که عبارت‏اند از: «دارایی»، «شیء»، «نیروی فیزیکی»، «جهت بالا»، «کنش»، «ماده» و «رفتار انسانی». اگرچه دو زبان فارسی و انگلیسی، استعاره‏های مفهومی مشترک زیادی برای مفهوم‏سازی شجاعت دارند، اما تفاوت‏هایی هم میان آن‏ها وجود دارد ازجمله حوزه‏های مبدأ متفاوت میان دو زبان که عبارت‌اند از: حوزۀ مبدأ «مسیر» که به زبان فارسی اختصاص دارد و حوزه‏ مبدأ «نمایش» که به زبان انگلیسی اختصاص دارد. چارچوب نظری پژوهش حاضر نظریۀ استعاره‏های مفهومی مطرح شده توسط لیکاف و جانسون (1980) و کووچش (2015) است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7042_8c66bb19847dd8c21413c5c8c9d68306.pdf