دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 The Semiotics of Emotional Discourse in the Story of A-lles va Al-kelab by Najib Mahfouz ‌نشانه - معناشناسی گفتمان عاطفی در داستان «اللص و الکلاب» اثر نجیب محفوظ 1 32 7441 10.48311/LRR.15.4.1 FA شهلا شکیبایی فر استادیار زبان و ادبیات عربی دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-2285-6892 روح اله صیادی نژاد دانشیار زبان و ادبیات عربی دانشگاه کاشان، کاشان، ایران Journal Article 1970 01 01 The emotional system is one of the discourses that is examined in the frameworkof the sign semantic model. In this system, the flow of means production is linked to perceptual sensory conditions of the passoniate and the signs- meanings are transformed into dynamic and muitydimensional forms. In this regard, the purpose of the present study is to explain the role of the mentioned process in the style of the passoniateˈs presence and the evoluation of discours conditions, based on the method of the sign- semantic discourse ,while explaining the emotional process of the story “Al-less va Al-kelb “. Findings show in the story of Al-less and Al-kelab the emotional system is based on passions. The emotions and passions in the novel, of which anger and despair are the most prominent, have created the emotional system of discourse based on a meaningful and logical flow. The occurrence of two events in a passionate life, betrayal of loved ones and failure to avenge betrayers, has played an important role in transforming the discourse by influencing emotions, as well as, fundamentally changing the text. In the initial partes of the text, the emotion of anger while causing a continuous and dynamic presence of passion, cause the value of revenge in the discourse. In the final partes, the feeling of despaire leads to isolation and passionate absence from the scene of events and the value funection of the text has changed from revenge to surrender. 1. Introduction Discourse semiotics is one of the new approaches in the study of literary texts, which studies the flow of meaning production in discourse systems by being influenced by the flow of phenomenology and accepting the presence of the human factor between the form of expression and the content. In this approach, the meaning is subject to human feelings and emotions above all else, and without a predetermined program in a moment of discourse, it is formed exactly where it is not expected. In this approach, the signs are placed in a meaningful and close interaction with each other and enjoy a process value. That is, they are examined based on an organized process and in the framework of a series of logical operations in which several components and elements are involved. Studying such an approach provides the conditions for analyzing meaning in the form of several discourses such as cognitive, narrative, tense, etc. The story "Al-Las and Al-Kalab" by Najib Mahfouz paints a true picture of the deepest human feelings in Arab-speaking societies. In this story, the author has described emotions such as anger, sadness, disappointment, and failure as beautifully as possible. Due to the fact that the author has provided detailed analyses of the psychological states of the characters in this story, by relying on the discourse semantics-symbol model, the emotional mechanism of the said work and the stages of its formation during a flow can be understood. Meaningful and explained in the form of a coherent linguistic system. The use of this method in the criticism of the present story is important from the point of view that by relying on it, the emotional signs of the text will have process value and the hidden meanings of the discourse will be studied from multiple angles. Based on what has been said, the purpose of the current research is to examine the stages of emotional system formation in the framework of a process schema, and then to explain the function of this process in the course of the evolution of the discourse as well as the change in the way of life of passoniators. Research Question(s) What is the role of the emotional process in the discursive advancement of the story "Al-Las and Al-Kalab"? How does this process change the value function of the novel "Al-Las and Al-Kalab" and in what way does it change the type of presence of passoniators? 2. Literature Review Discourse semiotics is one of the approaches that has attracted the attention of many semioticians, especially experts of the Paris school, in recent decades. Some of the most important works and books written in this field are: 1. Algirdas Germas (1987) "Defects of Meaning" which examines the two semantic systems of coincidence and coincidence. The topics of this book provide the basis for moving from classical and action-oriented semantics to Shushi's and emotion-oriented semantics. 2. Claude Zilberberg and Jacques Fontenay (1998) "Tense and Meaning" proposed the tension axis schema of the discourse. According to them, the foundations of tense discourse are formed based on a dynamic interaction of cognitive and sensory-perceptual relations. 3. Eric Landofsky (2004) has studied the sensory and perceptual dimensions of discourse based on the theory of phenomenology. He has also explained the types of subject-object relationships, such as the principles of "having and possessing" and "unity and matching". Regarding semantic signs in Iran, countless works have been compiled. Some of the most prominent of these works are: 1. Hamidreza Shayiri (2009), "Analysis of the semantic sign of discourse" explains the approach of semantic sign and by analyzing examples of literary works, proposes a model for discourse criticism. 2. Morteza Babak Moin (2016) "The missing dimensions of meaning in classical semiotics, the semantic system of adaptation or dance in interaction" which analyzes the four discourse systems considered by Landofsky, i.e. program-oriented system, persuasion, adaptation, and security and risk. Najib Mahfouz is one of the contemporary Arab writers who has played a very important role in the growth and flourishing the art of fiction writing, to the extent that he has been called the fourth pyramid of Egypt and the "Gustave Flaubert of the West" (Saeed, 2007: 107). Much scientific and literary research has been compiled about this author and his works. Some of the most important research written in connection with this author and her works are: 1. Faramarz Mirzaei and Ahmad Jamal Omidi (2014), "Dynamics of life in competition: Analysis of the semantic sign of discourse in the short story of the void" in the Journal of Language Essays that have studied the function of the emotional process in changing discourse conditions. 2. Behnam Farsi and Ali Sayadani (2015), "Semiotics of the Titles of Najib Mahfouz's "Trilogy" Novel" in the Arabic Language and Literature Journal based on the semiotics of the titles of three novels (Bain al-Qasserin, Qasr al-Shuq, al-Sukarieh) have been examined. The distinguishing feature of the research "Semantics of emotional discourse in the story of Al-Las and Al-Kalab" with other research written around the works of Najib Mahfouz is that the present research has analyzed the role of the emotional process in the evolution of discourse conditions - to explain as much of the contents as possible. It has integrated psychological analyses with linguistic topics. According to the author's research, no study based on discourse semiotics has analyzed the story of Al-Las and Al-Kalab; Therefore, with the feeling of such necessity, the author tried to explain the new dimensions of the abilities hidden in the works of Najib Mahfouz and a new manifestation of his worldview by using the discussed approach. 3. Methodology In the current research, it is tried to explain the emotional process of the story "Al-Las and Al-Kalab" based on the semiotic method of discourse semantics and explain the role of this process in the type of presence of the actor and the evolution of the discourse conditions. In this regard, after describing and studying the theoretical concepts of the research, such as the semantic sign approach and tense discourse, the formation of the schema of the emotional process of the story "Al-Las and Al-Kalab" in five stages of emotional stimulation, emotional capacity, emotional identity, emotional excitement and emotional evaluation of the case, we will review the studies and at the end, the results of the research will be stated. 4. Results In this research, the discourse system of the story "Al-Las and Al-Kalab" was analyzed based on the method of semantic signs and relying on the schema of Fontan's emotional process. In response to the main questions of the research, based on the role of the emotional process in the transformation of the value function of the discourse and the change of the presence of passion, it was assumed that the discourse of the story has angered the emotional atmosphere. The expansion and transcendence of this emotional space are very important in advancing the narrative course of the story. In fact, under the influence of anger, the actor first denies the betrayal, then prepares to take risks and take revenge on the traitors. In this way, he is challenged with the universe, the basis of sensory-emotional flow is formed, and the actor's emotions play an essential role in the type of his presence and the transformation of the value function of the discourse. According to the findings of the research, the occurrence of betrayal has put the subject (Said Mehran) in front of a discourse spark. In such an environment, the inner emotions of the activist make his dynamic and sensitive presence in the event scene and lead to countless unexpected and out-of-control events such as the killing of innocent people, the escape of Naboye and Alish Sedre, the rescue of Rauf. ‌ Alwan and finally the siege of the police should take shape in the story. Following the creation of action and the production of events, the movement of the discourse has also enjoyed a fast rhythm. In the final parts, saving the traitors once again puts the actor in front of a spark of discourse and causes a state of despair to appear. The actor with his affectivity from this sensory-emotional state surrenders to absolute passivity in such a way that by accepting his failure in the challenge of revenge, he refuses to enter the world of action and in some way adapts or aligns himself with the world of existence. In this case, the isolation of presence leads to the collapse of meaning and deactivation. Due to the stop of the production of action, the movement of the discourse has a slow rhythm. It can be said that in the discussed story, as a result of the transformation of the emotion of anger into despair, a kind of transformation is also observed in the value function of the discourse. In other words, the value of surrender has been replaced by revenge. نظام عاطفی ازجمله گفتمان‌هایی است که در چارچوب الگوی نشانه ـ معناشناسی مورد بررسی قرار می‏گیرد. در این نظام، جریان تولید معنی با شرایط ادراکی‏حسی شوشگر پیوند می‏خورد و نشانه ـ معناها به گونه‏های پویا، متکثر و چندبعدی تبدیل می‏شوند که با کنترل نظامی خاص و طی یک فرایند گفتمانی بروز می‏یابند. در این راستا هدف از انجام پژوهش حاضر آن است که بر مبنای روش نشانه معناشناسی گفتمانی ضمن تبیین فرایند عاطفی داستان «اللص و الکلاب»، نقش این فرایند در نوع حضور شوشگر و تحول شرایط گفتمانی شرح داده شود. یافته‏های پژوهش نشان می‏دهد نظام عاطفی این داستان مبتنی بر شوش است. احساسات و شوش‏های حاکم بر رمان که خشم و ناامیدی از برجسته‏ترین آن به‌شمار می‏رود، طی جریانی معنادار، نظام عاطفی گفتمان را ایجاد کرده‏اند. وقوع دو رخداد غیرمنتظره، یعنی خیانت نزدیکان و شکست در انتقام از خیانتکاران، منجر به آن شده که در باورها و عواطف شوشگر تغییراتی صورت گیرد. با تغییر حالات عاطفی سوژه، در ارزش‏های حاکم بر متن نیز دگرگونی‏های اساسی ایجاد شده ‏است. در بخش‏های آغازین روایت، عاطفۀ خشم ضمن آنکه حضور مستمر و پویای شوشگر را درپی داشته، موجب شکل‏گیری ارزش انتقام در گفتمان شده است و در بخش‏های پایانی، احساس ناامیدی سبب گوشه‏نشینی و غیاب گفته‏پرداز از صحنۀ رویدادها شده و کارکرد ارزشی متن را از انتقام به تسلیم و ناتوانی تبدیل کرده ‏است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7441_e35d7a5768c4b85b4780384d55dc3620.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Subversion of Unintelligible and Inevitable Male Gender Identity and Roles in Selected Plays by Tennessee Williams واژگونگی نقش و هویت جنسی ناگزیر و نامفهوم مردانه در آثار منتخب تنسی ویلیامز 33 62 7442 10.48311/LRR.15.4.33 FA نیلوفر امین پور گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران جلال سخنور استاد زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران زهرا بردباری استادیار زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، واحد رودهن، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، رودهن، ایران Journal Article 1970 01 01 The Butlerian theory of performativity and subversive performative acts has been always helped to consider the situation of female gender construction in the heteronormative cultures. The situation of male gender identity and roles in the bipolar cultures has not yet been studied and the hegemonic functional context of the heterosexuality was not considered to be effective in the construction of male gender identity and roles. In the light of Judith Butler’s theory, different male individuals are coming into consideration and the complimentary parts to the theory of performativity will be revealed. The present research is the first study of the male gender identities and roles in the light of the Butlerian theory of performativity to understand whether these individuals follow the same constructive elements and react performatively and subversively or not. The importance of the present research is that the representative of the matrix of power, as depicted by Williams, can be female individuals as well as male identities. In these cases, female characters attempt to oblige male gender identities to remain under the control of the heterosexism and understand the binaries that differentiates two intelligible gender identities. On the other hand, the variety of male gender identities that Williams illustrates, provide the opportunity to consider how male gender identity and roles react to the parodic acts and construct their identity through performative acts or subversive performativity. Another significant finding in this research is that to the time that homosexual male gender identities keep their lack of continuity among sex, gender, and sexual desire, they are allowed to live in the cultural context without receiving any harms. Introduction Judith Butler's theory of performativity and subversive performative acts has significantly contributed to the understanding of female gender identity construction within heteronormative cultures. Her groundbreaking work has illuminated how gender is not an inherent identity but rather a series of actions and behaviors continuously performed based on societal expectations. However, there has been a noticeable gap in the application of Butler's theories to the analysis of male gender identity and roles, particularly within the bipolar cultural framework that rigidly distinguishes between masculinity and femininity. This study aims to bridge that gap by exploring how male identities are constructed, performed, and potentially subverted in heteronormative contexts. By analyzing male characters in Tennessee Williams's plays, this research will reveal the complementary aspects of Butler's theory and provide insights into the performative nature of male gender identities. Literature Review The cornerstone of this study is Judith Butler's Gender Trouble (1990), where she first introduced the concepts of gender performativity and subversion. Butler's theory posits that gender identity is not a fixed trait but rather an ongoing performance dictated by cultural norms and expectations. Her subsequent works, Bodies That Matter (1993) and Excitable Speech (1997), further elaborate on these ideas, examining how language and societal norms contribute to the construction and regulation of gender identities. These texts are essential for understanding the theoretical framework of this study. Butler's theories are deeply influenced by earlier critical works from philosophers and theorists such as G.W.F. Hegel, Sigmund Freud, Simone de Beauvoir, Louis Althusser, and Michel Foucault. Hegel's dialectics, Freud's psychoanalysis, de Beauvoir's existential feminism, Althusser's concept of interpellation, and Foucault's discourse on power and sexuality collectively inform Butler's understanding of gender as a performative act. While previous scholarship on Tennessee Williams's plays has predominantly focused on female characters, analyzing them through the lens of second-wave feminism and the patriarchal social hierarchy, this study shifts the focus to male characters. It investigates how Williams's male characters perform their gender identities and whether they conform to or subvert the heteronormative expectations imposed upon them. This research is pioneering in its systematic application of Butlerian performativity to male characters in Williams's dramatic works, offering a novel perspective on gender construction and performance. Methodology and Argument The methodology of this study involves a detailed textual analysis of male characters in selected plays by Tennessee Williams. The plays chosen for this analysis include A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, and The Glass Menagerie. These works feature a variety of male characters—heterosexual, homosexual, and gigolo—whose gender identities and roles are constructed through their interactions and performative acts within heterosexist cultures. Using Butler's theory of performativity as the analytical framework, this study examines how these male characters engage in repetitive acts that constitute their gender identities. These acts, dictated by the binarized matrix of power, often conform to the expectations of heteronormativity but also contain potential for subversion. The analysis focuses on how these characters navigate their identities through performative acts, either reinforcing or challenging the hegemonic norms. For instance, the character of Brick in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof exemplifies the struggle with heteronormative expectations of masculinity. Brick's ambivalence towards his own sexuality and his performative acts of repression and denial highlight the tensions between societal expectations and personal identity. Similarly, the character of Tom in The Glass Menagerie grapples with the constraints of his gender role, performing acts of rebellion that ultimately reveal the fluidity and instability of gender norms. The study also explores how female characters in these plays occasionally assume the role of enforcing heteronormativity, attempting to define and control the gender identities and roles of male characters. For example, Blanche in A Streetcar Named Desire seeks to impose traditional gender roles on her brother-in-law, Stanley, while simultaneously challenging his authority and masculinity. This dynamic illustrates the complex interplay of power, gender, and performativity in Williams's works. Findings and Discussion The analysis of male characters in Tennessee Williams's plays reveals that the hegemony of a binarized culture exerts significant control over the construction of male gender identity and roles, mirroring the control it exerts over female gender identity. The performative acts of male characters, dictated by societal norms, often aim to uphold the heteronormative order. However, these acts also possess the potential for subversion, as even slight deviations from the norm can disrupt the established binary. One significant finding is that male characters in Williams's plays frequently engage in performative acts that challenge the coherence of the bipolar gender system. For instance, the character of Stanley in A Streetcar Named Desire performs hypermasculinity to assert his dominance, yet his actions also expose the fragility of such constructed identities. His aggressive behavior, while reinforcing traditional masculine traits, simultaneously reveals the performative nature of gender and its susceptibility to disruption. Moreover, the study highlights how homosexual male characters in Williams's plays navigate their identities within the heteronormative framework. Characters like Brick and Tom illustrate the discontinuity between sex, gender, and sexual desire, maintaining a space for subversive performativity. This discontinuity allows them to exist within the cultural context without fully conforming to its expectations, thereby challenging the stability of heteronormative identities. Another important observation is the role of female characters as representatives of the matrix of power, enforcing heteronormative roles onto male characters. This dynamic is particularly evident in the interactions between Blanche and Stanley in A Streetcar Named Desire, where Blanche's attempts to impose traditional gender norms on Stanley ultimately underscore the performative and fluid nature of gender identities. Conclusion In conclusion, the application of Judith Butler's theory of performativity to the analysis of male characters in Tennessee Williams's plays reveals the pervasive influence of heteronormative culture on gender identity construction. The study demonstrates that the binarized cultural framework controls male gender identity and roles similarly to female gender identity, through performative acts that both uphold and potentially subvert the established norms. The findings of this research contribute to a deeper understanding of gender construction and the interplay of power within theatrical representations. By examining how male characters in Williams's plays perform and subvert their gender identities, this study highlights the fluidity and complexity of gender and the potential for subversive acts to challenge the hegemony of heteronormativity. Overall, this research underscores the importance of considering male gender identities in the context of Butlerian performativity, providing new insights into the ways in which gender is constructed, performed, and contested within heteronormative cultures. Through the analysis of Williams's diverse male characters, this study offers a valuable contribution to the ongoing discourse on gender, identity, and power. فردیت سوژه‌های مذکر در نمایشنامه‌های تنسی ویلیامز به شکلی آفریده و تعریف می‌شوند که بعضاً با فرضیۀ ساختار هویت جنسی جودیت باتلر هماهنگ هستند. در چشم‌انداز کلی، روند این مهم، بررسی جایگاه هویت جنسی مذکر است که به‌صورت ظاهر در شکل دادن و تعیین جایگاه هویت جنسی ماده در سیستم فرهنگی دگرجنس‌گرایانه مؤثر بوده و جایگاه والاتر را از آن خود می‌سازد. اما در نگاه خردتر هویت جنسی مردانه بعضاً در ساخت فاعلیت مذکر نیز از قاعدۀ دوقطبی پیروی کرده و برای هویت مذکر ژیگولو و یا هم‌جنس‌گرا یا حتی پیروی فرهنگ دوجنسیتی اجباری، جایگاه پایین‌تری را درنظر می‌گیرد. هدف از نگارش این مقاله مشاهده و تحلیل نحوۀ شخصیت‌پردازی تنسی ویلیامز است که با نمایان ساختن نقش و هویت‌های جنسی مذکر متنوع، اعم از دگرجنس‌گرا، هم‌جنس‌گرا، و ژیگولو، به واکنش‌های متفاوت این افراد در رویارویی با استانداردهای ازپیش تعیین‌شدۀ فرهنگ دوجنسیتی پرداخته و تنوع اجراگری آن‌ها را که اغلب به واژگونگی منجر می‌شود به نمایش می‌گذارد. هدف دیگر این پژوهش، تطابق یافته‌هایی که از خوانش و تحلیل نمایشنامه‌های ویلیامز به‌دست آمده، با فرضیۀ اجراگری جودیت باتلر است. در این مطالعه، نگارندگان مقالۀ حاضر، به این نتیجه‌گیری دست یافته‌اند که کاستی‌هایی در تئوری وجود دارند که شخصیت‌های مذکر نمایشنامه‌ها را به‌صورت کامل پوشش نمی‌دهند و با وجود اینکه ویلیامز سال‌های زیادی قبل از باتلر آثار خود را منتشر کرده، به‌صورت جامع و متنوع شخصیت‌های مذکری را پدید آورده که همۀ جوانب رویارویی با فرهنگ دگرجنس‌خواه را به تصویر می‌کشند. در این جستار نحوۀ بررسی به این صورت خواهد بود که مواردی از تئوری باتلر درخصوص اجراگری و اجراگری واژگون عنوان شده و با درنظر گرفتن شخصیت‌های مذکر نمایشنامه‌های تنسی ویلیامز، چگونگی کاربرد نظریه به‌صورت عملی تحلیل خواهد شد. از آنجایی که تنوع شخصیت‌های مذکر در نمایشنامه‌ها به همۀ ابعاد تئوری امکان اشراف و ظهور را می‌دهد، پژوهش حاضر بسیار با واقعیت جهان هستی مطابق بوده و از سوی دیگر، زندگی شخصی نویسنده به‌عنوان هم‌جنس‌گرایی که با قوانین و قطبی‌شدگی ماتریس قدرت جامعه و فرهنگ روبه‌رو بوده، بسیار به درک و شناخت کلی هژمونی فرهنگ دگرجنس‌گرا در ارتباط با فردیت‌های مذکر جامعه یاری خواهد رساند. در بررسی نمایشنامه‌های تنسی ویلیامز و شخصیت‌های مذکر آن‌ها، و استفاده از نظریۀ جودیت باتلر مبنی بر اجراگری و واژگونگی اجراگرایانه، دستاورد مهمی که حاصل می‌شود، نمایش نقص نظریۀ باتلر در توضیح نحوۀ برخورد فرهنگ دوجنسیتی در ارتباط با فردیت مذکر است. نظریه از این جهت با کمبود مواجه است که در مواردی که برای افراد مذکر هم‌جنس‌گرا یا دگرجنس‌گرا از سوی مردان و همچنین زنان جامعه نقش و هویت جنسی پایین‌تری تعریف می‌شود، هیچ‌گونه توضیح یا توجیهی ارائه نمی‌دهد. اجراگری هویت‌های جنسی مذکر و احیاناً واژگونگی اجراگرایانۀ آن‌ها در غالب بسیار متنوعی در آثار ویلیامز به نمایش درآمده‌اند که از سوی مردان جامعه و همچنین زنان جامعه که نقش غالب را انتخاب کرده و به‌عنوان نمایندگان ماتریس قدرت در ارتباط با اعضای مذکر روبه‌رو می‌شوند در جایگاه ثانویه قرار می‌گیرند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7442_e41990b122b864f164d2ab96e8322690.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Computer Adaptive Placement Test of Vocabulary and Grammar Components: Investigation of Test Anxiety in Persian/Farsi Non-Native Learners آزمون انطباقی رایانه‌ای تعیین سطح مؤلفه‌های واژه و دستور: بررسی میزان اضطراب فارسی‌آموزان 63 96 7443 10.48311/LRR.15.4.63 FA زری سعیدی دانشیار آموزش زبان انگلیسی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-2165-8891 رضا مراد صحرایی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران 0000-0001-9953-0789 فاطمه کلاری دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد آموزش زبان فارسی به غیر فارسی‌زبانان، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران 0009-0004-6397-2365 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The research aims to compare anxiety of non-native (Iraqi) Persian language learners in computer adaptive placement test of Persian grammar and vocabulary with its linear computerized test counterpart. The main concern of this study was to scrutinize the probable relationship between linear and adaptive vocabulary and grammar placement tests and testees’ anxiety (in case there is any)?" Explanatory mixed-method approach was used in the present study. The procedure for data collection was field research via the application of questionnaire and tests. The designed test was given to 48 Iraqi male and female students with the age range of 25-40 years from Persian language center of Tarbiat Modares University, with different language levels and in two forms of adaptive and linear computerized tests. According to positive upper and lower limits of average variance, the researcher came up to the conclusion that the average of anxiety component in linear computer test is more than the average 3. The findings revealed that test anxiety level of Iraqi students in adaptive test was lower than the linear computer test. These results help to encourage teachers and educational centers to design more computer adaptive tests. 1. Introduction The inefficiency of the language level test cannot be ignored at all. Even if a learner is misplaced and placed in a course that does not suit his needs, it does not diminish the importance of this issue. Inconsistency in the content or at least in the framework of tests will be considered a big weakness in education. Lack of valid placement test means lack of correct identification; and misdiagnosing the learner's level means assessing the needs, determining the wrong goal and curriculum, as well as wasting his and the teacher's energy, and ultimately discouraging the learner. On the one hand, this issue will also lead to increased anxiety in the language learner. On the other hand, according to the world of communication and the ever-increasing progress in technology, more efficient and appropriate methods should be used for test-making or test implementation. In this regard, it should be kept in mind that the quality of the test does not sacrifice its appearance and shape. Research Question(s) The main research question of this study can be formulated as follows: What is the relationship between linear computerized test and computer adaptive placement test of Farsi vocabulary and grammar on the testee’s anxiety level, if there is a relationship? Following this question, the present hypothesis is proposed: The level of test anxiety in the computer adaptive placement test is lower than in the equivalent linear computerized test. 2. Literature Review Measurement is the process by which a better understanding of existing knowledge is gained. Quantitative and qualitative features are involved in this process. Measurement can be as simple as the teacher's personal judgment based on his classroom observations of language learners in the class, or it can be as complex as a standard test lasting several hours (Birjandi & Mosallinejad, 2012). In the teaching-learning environment, assessment is always needed to measure the efficiency or quality and efficiency of the teaching or learning process (Masters, 2014). This important process, which is generally called assessment, is not only done after teaching but can also be done before teaching or during the teaching process. Assessment and testing are two inseparable and complementary pillars of language teaching. The relationship between teaching and testing is so closely interdependent that it is not possible to only address one of them without paying attention to the other (Zandi et al., 2018). Until recently, test designers and teachers used traditional paper-and-pencil tests to assess and measure the achievement of cognitive learning goals (Weiss & Kingsbury, 1984). The use of computers in the field of language testing and assessment dates back to 1935 when correctional officers used computers to quickly calculate test scores in the United States (Abukhzam, 2013). Computerized tests opened a new window in future tests to measure the language skills of language learners (Fleming & Hiple, 2004). There are different types of computer-based tests. The two main types of computer-based tests are adaptive computer tests and direct computer tests. Direct (linear) computerized tests refer to the use of a computer for a test that is the same as a paper-and-pencil test format. In this way, this test has the same questions as the paper-and-pencil test, and the items are displayed in the same order as the paper-and-pencil version. Most computer-based tests are designed based on the classical test theory and extensive studies have been conducted on them (Dunn et al., 1972; Elwood, 1969; Kiely et al., 1986). However, there will undoubtedly always be those for whom the computer is a mystery. Therefore, computers and how to use them in the language test should be introduced and taught for their needs. Anxiety is a reaction caused by internal feelings in response to external threats (Casbarro, 2005). Test anxiety is an important issue that arises during tests. This multidimensional structure has two main factors: the cognitive dimension and the emotional dimension. The cognitive dimension deals with mental activities around the test situation and leads to worry and unrelated or negative thoughts along with feelings of discomfort. The emotional dimension is related to the psychological component, which includes anxiety, physical reaction, and arousal (Cassady, 2004; Zeidner, 2007). 3. Methodology To evaluate the correctness of the proposed hypotheses, the integrated research method was used. The method of data collection is in the field and using questionnaires and tests. In this way, firstly, the vocabulary and grammar test questions were designed in computer format for male and female Persian learners aged 25-40 with Iraqi nationality at the Persian Language Center for non-Persian speakers of Tarbiat Modares University, Shahid Beheshti University and Imam Khomeini International University, at different language levels. In the form of a computerized test, the characteristics of the test were determined. Then, 48 male and female foreign students of Iraqi nationality, who had participated in the Farsi course of Tarbiat Modares Language Center and were studying at the university at the time of the research, participated in both tests and passed the test. After the test, all language learners completed the test anxiety questionnaire. 4. Results To answer the question of the present research, the Donald Powers (1999) questionnaire was used after the tests. Examining the research data showed that the average score of the anxiety component in the adaptive test is lower than the average. On the other hand, the average score of the anxiety component in the computer test is more than average. In this way, the average scores of anxiety in the computer test are higher than the adaptive test. Also, the examination of the scores of both tests showed that the mean scores of anxiety in computerized and adaptive test have a significant difference. Therefore, the average score of computerized test anxiety is significantly higher than the average score of adaptive test. As a result, the level of test anxiety in adaptive computer test is lower than the linear computerized test. These findings are in line with Henning's (1991) research. However, it is contrary to the research findings of Hooper and Hannafin (1989) that computer tests cause more anxiety in testees. These results help to encourage teachers and educational centers to design more computer adaptive tests. It also shows the effect of these tests in reducing the anxiety of language learners compared to paper-and-pencil tests or direct computer tests. Therefore, by using adaptive computer tests, language learners can take the test according to their level at home or in the institution with less anxiety, and the test results will be more reliable. هدف از انجام پژوهش حاضر، مقایسۀ میزان اضطراب آزمون فارسی‌آموزان خارجی (عراقی) در آزمون تعیین سطح دانش زبان فارسی (دستور و واژه) به دو صورت رایانه‌ای مستقیم و آزمون انطباقی رایانه‌ای همتاست. به این منظور، این سؤال مطرح شد که رابطۀ بین آزمون‌های تعیین سطح مؤلفه‌های دستور و واژۀ فارسی انطباقی رایانه‌ای و رایانه‌محور بر میزان اضطراب آزمودنی‌ها، در صورت وجود ارتباط، چیست؟ در این پژوهش از روش تلفیقی استفاده شد. شیوۀ گردآوری داده به‌صورت میدانی و با استفاده از پرسش‌نامه و آزمون بود. به این ترتیب، آزمون طراحی‌شده پس از تعیین ویژگی‌های آزمون از 48 نفر از فارسی‌آموزان دختر و پسر 25 ـ 40 ساله با ملیت عراقی مرکز آموزش زبان فارسی به غیرفارسی‌زبانان دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، در سطوح زبانی مختلف در قالب آزمون رایانه‌ای مستقیم و انطباقی اجرا شد. با توجه به مثبت بودن حد بالا و حد پایین فاصلۀ اطمینان اختلاف میانگین، درمی‌یابیم که میانگین نمرۀ مؤلفه اضطراب در آزمون رایانه‌ای بیش از حد متوسط 3 است. درنتیجه میزان اضطراب فارسی‌آموزان عراقی در آزمون انطباقی رایانه‌ای کم‌تر از آزمون رایانه‌ای مستقیم همتاست.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7443_4afa19649ae378da31a423bcd78a97c8.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Semantic Relationships in Endocentric Compounds of Gahvarehei Kurdish روابط معنایی در واژه‌های مرکب درون‌مرکز در کردی گهواره‌ای 97 136 7444 10.48311/LRR.15.4.97 FA فرانک نادری دکتری زبا‌ن‌شناسی، مدرس دانشگاه فرهنگیان، خرم‌آباد، ایران. 0000-0002-2702-4956 Journal Article 1970 01 01 In the present article, different types of semantic relationships between the components of endocentric compound words in Gahvarehei Kurdish are investigated. The corpus of the research data includes endocentric compounds that have been obtained from the everyday speech of native speakers of Gahvarehei Kurdish, which is one of the dialects of the southern Kurdish branch and is common in Gahvareh section in Dalahoo County, Kermanshah province, Iran. The results of the research show that endocentric compound words in Gahvarehei Kurdish in terms of structure include: noun-noun head-initial, noun-noun head-final, noun-adjective, adjective-noun and preposition-noun. Various semantic relationships between the components of these structures can be found, such as origin, material, gender, content, possession, use, type, dependence, similarity, instrument, kinship, manner, time, amalgamation, taste, physical condition, age, function, production tools and place. The research findings, which include a list of semantic relationships between the components of endocentric compound words in Southern Kurdish, can be a complement for other lists provided by researchers in other Iranian languages as well as other languages in the world and lead us to a comprehensive classification of different types of semantic relations in compound words. 1. Introduction Compounding is one of the most important word-formation processes in many languages of the world. In Kurdish, the process of composition, along with derivation, is one of the two main and most widely used processes of word formation. The discussion of semantic relationships between the constituent components of compound words and the presentation of lists or regular classifications of them is one of the important topics in the studies of the field of word formation, especially in the case of endocentric compound words. Our goal in this study is to provide a comprehensive classification of the types of semantic relationships between the components of the noun-noun, noun-adjective, and adjective-noun compounds in Gahvarehei Kurdish. Accordingly, the main question of this study is what are the types of semantic relations in endocentric compound words in Gahvarehei Kurdish? The research data consists of endocentric compounds collected from the daily speech of Kurdish speakers residing in the city of Gahvareh (Dalahoo County, Kermanshah Province, Iran). The common language type in this region is considered to be one of the southern Kurdish dialects in terms of linguistic characteristics, and it is closely related to the Kalhori dialect, but it has differences with it in terms of phonology and vocabulary. 2. Literature Review To date, some studies have been conducted on the processes of word formation, and in particular the discussion of compounding and compound words in various Kurdish dialects and varieties, among which the following can be mentioned: process of repetition in Kalhori (Jahanfar, 2017); compound verbs in Kalhori dialect (Afshar & Zarei, 2017); comparison of word-formation processes in Persian and Kurdish languages (Jendo Ismail, 2018); and word-formation processes in Ilami Kurdish dialect (Sherafat, 2020). However, the discussion of the semantic relationship between components of compound words has been neglected and no study has been conducted in this field. Therefore, we will review studies that have been conducted on the endocentric compound words in Persian and other Iranian languages. Sabzevari (2010) based on CARIN theory (Competition among Relations in Nominals) has investigated the relationship between the components of Persian compound nouns and the role of this relationship in the semantic classification of these words. He points out that the semantic interpretation of a compound word depends on the relationship between its components and the descriptor of the compound noun (i.e. the non-head element) determines the type of relationship between the head and the dependent. Asi and Badakhshan (1389), after examining the various characteristics of compounding that distinguish compound words from syntactic phrases, have analyzed the types of compounds in Persian. After discussing the types of existing classifications, they finally considered Scalise & Bisetto’s classification (2009) as the most complete classification, and based on that, they divided the types of Persian compounds into three main groups: subordinate, attributive, and coordinate, each of which can be exocentric or endocentric. Following Costello and Keane (2000), Sabzevari (2019) considered three types of semantic relations in Persian nouns: 1) relational compounding; 2) Property compounding; 3) Conjunctional compounding. 3. Methodology The present research was carried out using a descriptive-analytical method and the data collection method was such that the researcher wrote down every compound word that he encountered in his family environment, work environment, and surrounding community in three months (in total 820 cases). Then, based on a criterion called the ‘hyponymy test’, endocentric compound words were distinguished from other types of compound words. In total, 345 of the collected compound words were of the endocentric type. Finally, the obtained words have been analyzed and classified in terms of the type of semantic relationship between their components based on the approach of Adams (2001) and Moldovan et al. (2004). 4. Results The results of the study show that all compound words in Gahvarehei Kurdish are formed around the core axis of the noun category but other lexical categories such as verbs, adjectives ، adverbs and so on cannot be in the head position of these words. Dependents can be a noun, adjective, or preposition, and somehow modulate the meaning of the head and limit its inclusion. Therefore, these types of combinations are structurally divided into four types: noun-noun, noun- adjective, Adjective – noun, and preposition – noun. The diversity of semantic relationships between the components of compounds leads to a range of meanings in them. The types of relationships identified in each of the structures examined in this study are as follows: Table 1 Semantic Relationships in Endocentric Compounds of Gahvarehei Kurdish Head-initial NOUN- NOUN origin, gender, content, ownership, usage, type, dependence Head-final NOUN- NOUN similarity, instrument, kinship, origin, place, manner, time, content, type NOUN- ADJECTIVE color, taste, relationship, physical state, age, gender, sex, function, means of production, origin ADJECTIVE - NOUN gender, size, age, physical state PREPOSITION - NOUN location The findings of the research, which includes a list of semantic relationships between components of endocentric compound words in Gahvarehei Kurdish, along with the findings of Iranian researchers such as Sabzevari (2011) and Karimidostan and Vahid (2015) can lead us to provide a comprehensive classification of the types of semantic relations in compound words in Iranian languages. These findings can also complement the lists provided by researchers of other world languages (such as Adams, 1973; Ryder, 1994; Costello and Keane, 2000; Adams, 2001; Moldovan et al., 2004; Estes and Jones, 2008; Szubert, 2012). در مقالۀ حاضر به بررسی انواع روابط معنایی بین اجزای واژه‌های مرکب درون‌مرکز در کردی گهواره‌ای پرداخته می‌شود. پیکرۀ داده‌های پژوهش مشتمل بر ترکیب‌های درون‌مرکزی است که از گفتار روزمرۀ گویشوران کردی گهواره‌ای به‌دست آمده است که جزو گویش‌های شاخۀ کردی جنوبی به حساب می‌آید و در بخش گهواره در شهرستان دالاهو (استان کرمانشاه) رواج دارد. نتایج پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که واژه‌های مرکب درون‌مرکز در گهواره‌ای از لحاظ ساختار عبارت‌اند از اسم ـ اسم هسته‌آغاز، اسم ـ اسم هسته‌پایان، اسم ـ صفت، صفت ـ اسم و حرف اضافه ـ اسم. بین اجزای این ساختارها روابط معنایی متنوع و متعددی ازقبیل منشأ، مادۀ سازنده، جنسیت، محتوا، مالکیت، استعمال، نوع، وابستگی، شباهت، ابزار، خویشاوندی، شیوه، زمان، آغشتگی، مزه، حالت فیزیکی، سن، نحوۀ عملکرد، ابزار تولید و مکان را می‌توان یافت. یافته‌های پژوهش که شامل فهرستی از روابط معنایی بین اجزای واژه‌های مرکب درون‌مرکز در کردی جنوبی است، می‌تواند مکمل فهرست‌های ارائه‌شده از سوی پژوهشگران سایر زبان‌های ایرانی و همچنین سایر زبان‌های جهان باشد و ما را به سوی ارائۀ طبقه‌بندی جامعی از انواع روابط معنایی در واژه‌های مرکب هدایت کند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7444_3423c8199b1e39e91245326376364445.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Turkish Varieties of Lurestan Province, Influence of Language Contact Situation گونه‌های ترکی استان لرستان، اثرپذیری از موقعیت تماس زبانی 137 168 7445 10.48311/LRR.15.4.137 FA رضا امینی استادیار زبان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-0486-2332 Journal Article 1970 01 01 In this article, the situation of the Turkish varieties of Luristan province is studied. The main languages of the province are Luri and Laki, and in some regions varieties of Persian impacted by Luri. However, in Aligudarz, Azna, and Borujerd counties of the province, there are a number of Turkish-speaking villages too. Turkish varieties spoken in these villages, lexically, and sometimes morphologically and syntactically, show their own specific properties. We can argue that these Turkish varieties have acquired these properties as a consequence of being in contact with Luri as the dominant language of the region. Investigations of this research shows that the Turkish varieties in question, in some lexical categories, clearly, are impacted by Luri and Persian more significantly than the other lexical categories. On the other hand, the Turkish varieties in the three aforementioned counties do not seem to be influenced by Luri equally. Therefore, regarding different conditions of the language communities these varieties are used in, we should imagine different perspectives for them in terms of language survival. 1. Introduction The main languages of Lurestan province in Iran are Luri and Laki, and in some regions, varieties of Persian impacted by Luri. However, in some villages of Aligudarz, Azna and Boroujerd of the province, there are a few Turkish-speaking villages. These varieties have been in contact with Luri, as the dominant language of the province, and Persian as the lingua franca and formal language of Iran. Therefore, we can argue that these Turkish varieties, under the influence of Luri and Persian, have acquired properties that make them different from the other Turkish varieties of Iran, namely Azeri Turkish. Research Question(s) In this article, the Turkish varieties of Lurestan are studied, mainly, to answer the following two questions. A. What are the linguistic properties of Turkish varieties of Lurestan? B. Knowing that the language communities of Lurestan's Turkish varieties are in contact with a much larger language community, what perspective can be imagined for their survival? 2. Literature Review Language contact is an important issue in sociolinguistics; and since a large number of different languages around the world are in contact with other languages, the consequences of these contacts are investigated by researchers. However, as far as the author knows, the Turkish varieties of Lurestan are not studied till know. And, even it seems that they are not known out of the province. To the knowledge of the author, Zarinjuyi (2018) is the only report in which the Turkish-speaking villages of Lurestan are mentioned. Additionally, in some historical books we confront the name of Turk tribes of Lurestan region. 3. Methodology Methodologically, this research is an inductive one, and in terms of method, the research is of descriptive-analytical type. In other words, the results and findings of the research are based on describing and analyzing data. The data are parts of the data have gathered for the “Linguistic Atlas of Iran”. 4. Results Based on the analyses and discussions of the article, we can argue that vowel harmony, as one of the characteristic features of Turkic languages, has been weaken in Turkish varieties of Lurestan, because of contact with Luri and Persian. Moreover, the data shows that some of the lexical categories of these Turkish varieties are impacted by Luri and Persian, particularly categories of kinship terms and words related to plants. In addition, considering the different conditions of the language communities of these Turkish varieties, it seems that these language varieties are not in the same situation in terms of survival. Accordingly, it seems that Turkish variety of Chaman-Soltan in Aligudarz county, and Turkish varieties of Azna county, are in better conditions, because of having more populous and cohesive language communities. But, the perspective for survival of Turkish varieties of Borujerd county doesn’t seem to be hopeful, because of having scattered and small language communities, and the heavy impacts of the much larger community of Luri and migration. در این پژوهش، وضعیت گونه‌های ترکی استان لرستان بررسی شده است. زبان‌های غالب این استان لری، لکی و در برخی مناطق، گونه‌ای فارسیِ متأثر از زبان لری است، اما در شهرستان‌های الیگودرز، ازنا و بروجرد این استان، شماری روستای ترک‌زبان نیز وجود دارد. ترکی رایج در این روستاها، به‌لحاظ واژگانی و گاه ساخت‌واژی و نحوی ویژگی‌های خاصی دارد. از این رو، این مسئله مطرح می‌شود که چنین ویژگی‌هایی ممکن است حاصل قرار داشتن این گونه‌های زبانی در موقعیت تماس با زبان‌ لری، به‌عنوان رایج‌ترین زبان منطقه باشد. بررسی‌های این پژوهش از یک سو نشان می‌دهد که در سطح واژگانی، اثرپذیری گونه‌های ترکی لرستان از لری و فارسی در برخی از مقوله‌های واژگانی به نحو معناداری بیش از مقوله‌های دیگر است، و از سوی دیگر، میزان اثرپذیری گونه‌های ترکی سه شهرستان مذکور از لری یکسان به‌نظر نمی‌رسد و با توجه به شرایط جامعه‌های زبانی که این گونه‌های ترکی در آن به‌کار می‌روند، باید چشم‌انداز متفاوتی برای آن‌ها متصور شد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7445_e9dcb63ca828d0e00cd05b445099ed2e.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Evaluation of Persian Translations Regarding Quasi-Synonym Words Related to the Concept of Sin in the Qur'an ارزیابی ترجمه‌های فارسی در خصوص واژگان مترادف‌نمای مرتبط با مفهوم گناه در قرآن 169 200 7446 10.48311/LRR.15.4.169 FA مهدی پیچان دانشجوی دکتری علوم وقران وحدیث، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-2739-317X علی حاجی خانی دانشیار گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-8255-8432 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The analysis of the observance of the principle of non-synonymy in the words of the Qur'an in the translation of quasi-synonym words is one of the most prominent criteria for evaluating the work of translators. Among the quasi-synonym words in the divine verses are words related to the concept of sin. Care in translating these words leads to a better understanding of the high teachings of the Qur'an in the three areas of beliefs, rules and ethics. In this regard, this study tries to evaluate the translations of Mr. Moezi, Fooladvand, Ayati, Elahi Qomshei and Ms. Saffarzadeh as representatives of five methods of literal, loyal, semantic translation, interprative and free using a descriptive-analytical method combined with criticism mentioned field. The lack of sufficient attention of translators to the semantic subtlety and the distinction between these words is obvious. Paying attention to the semantic principle proposed for each word that has been described in detail in Philology books will help the translator to translate these words accurately. The results indicate that the exact meaning of these words can be expressed in short and useful words or in the form of explanations in parentheses in semantic, free and interprative methods, but due to the limitation of Persian words, literal methods and loyal are not very efficient in this regard. 1. Introduction Undoubtedly, the most important step in the translation process, especially in the translation of holy texts, is to transfer the concepts of the source language to the target language with precise words and translations. The importance of this issue is so much that it can be said that in translation criticism, lexical criticism has the first place in the critic's opinion; as critics mainly focus on evaluating the merits and demerits of translations from the point of view of accurately comparing the words and meanings of the source language. One of the most prominent criteria in evaluating the work of Qur'an translators from this point of view is to examine the extent to which they pay attention to the translation of quasi-synonyms and observe the principle of non-synonyms in the words of the Qur'an. Among the quasi-synonym words in the divine verses, there are words related to the concept of sin. So far, little research has been conducted in the field of analysis and evaluation of Persian translations of words related to the concept of sin. Therefore, this article tries to analyze the weak points and strengths of Persian translations in this field with a descriptive-analytical method combined with criticism. In this regard, this research tries to use a descriptive-analytical method combined with criticism and evaluation of the translations of Mr. Moezi, Fooladvand, Ayati, Elahi Qomshei and Ms. Saffarzadeh as representatives of five methods of literal, loyal, semantic translation, interpretive and free using a descriptive-analytical method combined with criticism mentioned field. Research Questions Based on what was said, the questions of the present research are as follows: What is the best equivalent for a quasi-synonym related to the concept of sin in the Persian language? What is the most successful translation method regarding the mentioned words? 2. Literature Review The theoretical framework of the current research can be explained in two parts. Its first foundation is based on the point of view of the absence of synonyms in the words of the Arabic language in general and in the words of the Qur'an in particular. The second theoretical foundation of the current research is based on the "semantic principle" theory. What is meant by the semantic principle in the Qur'anic dictionary is the meaning that has become famous due to the status of the authors and the plurality of usage, and usually, this semantic principle is common among the lexical roots of a word. 3. Methodology In order to find the answer to the mentioned problems, under each word and firstly, an introduction of the meaning of the words mentioned in the lexicological sources is given, then the examples of the use of the word in the verse are discussed. In the next step, the mentioned word is analyzed in each translation from the mentioned translators and finally, a suitable proposal for translation is presented. 4. Results Criticism of Persian translations of synonymous words related to the concept of sin in Quranic verses shows that, except in limited cases, a precise distinction between these words is not reflected in the translations, and the translators have not placed a clear picture of the nuances and nuances of the meanings of these words. Although the limitation caused by the essence and nature of the translation process makes it difficult for the translator to choose an exact word for these words, considering the meaning principle of each word explained in the lexicographical books, it is possible to convey the concepts of the Quranic verses. Among the translation methods, literal and loyal methods are not suitable for such an action, because, in these methods, the emphasis is on rendering the meaning of the word without explanation and explanation, while it was mentioned that it is not always possible to find an exact equivalent in Persian language for this words. Therefore, semantic, free, and interpretative methods are more effective in this direction, in such a way that as much as possible and in the form of brief words, the semantic principle of the word is expressed in such a way that the coherence and integrity of the translation are preserved, but if this is not possible, this can be achieved by mentioning explanations in parentheses. واکاوی میزان رعایت اصل عدم ترادف در الفاظ قرآن در ترجمۀ واژگان مترادف‌نما، از برجسته‌ترین ملاک‌های ارزیابی کار مترجمان است. ازجمله واژگان مترادف‌نما در آیات الهی، واژگان مرتبط با مفهوم گناه است. دقت در ترجمۀ این واژگان به فهم و درک بهتر معارف والای قرآن در سه حوزۀ عقاید، احکام و اخلاق می‌انجامد. در همین راستا، این پژوهش می‌کوشد با روش توصیفی ـ تحلیلی توأم با نقد و با ارزیابی ترجمه‌های آقایان معزی، فولادوند، آیتی، الهی قمشه‌ای و خانم صفارزاده به‌عنوان نمایندگان پنج روش ترجمۀ تحت‌اللفظی، وفادار، معنایی، تفسیری و آزاد به این مسائل پاسخ دهد؛ بهترین معادل برای واژگان مترادف‌نمای مرتبط با مفهوم گناه در زبان فارسی چیست؟ موفق‌ترین روش ترجمه درخصوص واژگان یادشده کدام است؟ فرضیۀ تحقیق پیش رو عبارت است از اینکه مترجمان فارسی‌زبان در ترجمۀ واژگان مرتبط با مفهوم گناه به‌مثابۀ دسته‌ای از واژگان مترادف‌نمای قرآن، اصل عدم ترادف را لحاظ نکرده‌اند، در حالی‌که با عنایت به اصل معنایی واژگان یادشده امکان تبیین وجوه تمایز این الفاظ در ترجمه وجود دارد. نتایج ارزیابی‌های صورت‌گرفته حاکی از آن است که بیان معنای دقیق این الفاظ با عنایت به اصل معنایی واژگان یادشده و در قالب واژگانی مختصر و مفید و یا در قالب توضیحاتی درون پرانتز در روش‌های معنایی، آزاد و تفسیری امکان‌پذیر است، اما به‌دلیل محدودیت ناشی از ذات و طبیعت روش‌های ترجمۀ تحت‌اللفظی و وفادار، این دو روش چندان کارآمد نیستند.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Analyzing Reading Comprehension Strategies in Farsi Textbook of Sixth Grade: A Socio-psycholinguistic Approach واکاوی راهبردهای درک خواندن در کتاب‌ فارسی ششم دورۀ دوم ابتدایی: پژوهشی از منظر رویکرد اجتماعی ـ روان‌شناسی ‌زبان‌ 201 235 7447 10.48311/LRR.15.4.201 FA موسی غنچه پور استادیار گروه آموزش زبان و ادبیات، دانشگاه فرهنگیان، تهران، ایران 0000-0001-9259-3410 زهره احمدی پور اناری استادیار گروه آموزش زبان و ادبیات، دانشگاه فرهنگیان، تهران، ایران جواد خدادای اسفیجار کارشناس ارشد آموزش و پرورش کرمان (ماهان)، کرمان، ایران 0009-0004-3545-8289 Journal Article 1970 01 01 Reading is a complicated process that employing comprehension strategies helps learners have more interaction with text to understand it better. The aim of this descriptive-analytic study is investigating Farsi textbook of sixth grade in elementary school based on three activating background knowledge, cultivating vocabulary and verifying strategies and their 26 techniques. It is performed by focusing on Anderson's socio-psycholinguistic approach (1994 & 2012) to be clarified the book's correspondence with its cognitive, metacognitive and compensatory strategies. For this purpose, 79 techniques were collected from all texts and tasks including reading comprehension, perception and conception, interpretation and comprehension, linguistic and literary knowledge, game and listen and say based on researcher-made checklist. Data analysis shows that although all strategies are used, frequency and variation of techniques are low and its content is inconsistent with this model. Organization of chapters into lessons with various titles and sections like read and memorize, tale, read and think, listen and say attracts learners' interests. Various techniques in teaching vocabularies, working with classmates to extend reading skill, teaching vocabulary in connection with other language activities, explicit teaching of vocabularies, teaching vocabulary independent of other language activities, lexical schemes, conceptual relationships, remembering and exercises following these techniques have not been used. Data of verifying principle showed that more attention is paid to metacognitive strategies. Using various texts and techniques relating to remembering previous knowledge are the advantages and not paying attention to group exercises to support the critical thinking of learners are the drawbacks of the book's content. 1. Introduction Reading holds an essential function in learning a language and is a tool to be informed of the views and thoughts of others. Due to the useful information that people get through this learning skill, the knowledge and their level of awareness increase. Reading is also a purposeful and conceptual skill in which the reader processes the text actively by employing the previous background knowledge and other acquired skills. The PIRLS studies show that the reading literacy of students in elementary schools of Iran is reducing. Regarding the significant role of textbooks in helping elementary students achieve reading abilities, the aim of this study is to investigate the Farsi textbook of 6th grade (Ghassempour Moghaddam et al., 2020) to be informed of its strengths and weaknesses. It lets the curriculum planners use efficient strategies to improve the quality of reading teaching. As reading comprehension strategies in this textbook have not been studied from new and communicative models such as the socio-psycholinguistic approach, it is required to do a study to clarify the frequency and nature of reading strategies in Farsi book of sixth grade to present the method(s) to improve the book's content and codification. As such, in this analytic-descriptive study, all Farsi elementary books are considered as the population and the book of sixth grade as a sample. Seventy-nine strategies were extracted from this sample and then they were analyzed. The corpus was taken based on the researcher-made checklist concerning activating background knowledge, cultivating vocabulary, and verifying strategies of all text and exercises about socio-psycholinguistic approach. The descriptive and inferential statistics (non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis H test) were used to analyze the data. The authors of the textbook sixth grade maintain that this book compared to fourth and fifth grades pays more attention to critical reading and is representative of this educational period, therefore it is studied based on Anderson's communicative approach (1994 & 2012) to be determined and clarified its conformity with this model, its content quality to facilitate the learning process. Research Questions This study investigates the reading strategies used in Farsi book of sixth grade to answer the following questions: 1- To what extent do the materials and content of the Farsi textbook of sixth grade correspond to Anderson's socio-psycholinguistic theory? 2- Which strategy (ies) of this model has the most frequency in this book? 3- What are the advantages and drawbacks of the Farsi textbook of sixth grade based on Anderson's socio-psycholinguistic approach? The following hypotheses are introduced for the mentioned questions: 1- The materials and content of the Farsi textbook for sixth grade correspond to Anderson's socio-psycholinguistic theory. 2- Cultivating vocabulary holds the most frequency of all strategies. 3- Employing a variety of titles for lessons and the same exercises is respectively of this book's strengths and drawbacks. 2. Literature Review The important studies that have been done by Iranian and non-Iranian researchers are mentioned here. 2.1. Studies done in Iran Ghaffari (2011) in a study titled teaching reading based on Anderson (1994) expressed that the socio-psycholinguistic approach is an efficient model for Persian teaching and it has also an effect on language learners' motivation. Sahrayi and Shahbaz (2012) investigate the books of learning Persian (Zolfaghari et al., 2008) and Persian language collection (Saffarmoqaddam, 2007). They stressed that cultivating vocabulary strategies has the most frequency in these books. Mirdehghan et al., (2013) indicate that Anderson's Model (1994) increases reading comprehension and knowledge. The findings of Safarmoqaddam and Ahadi (2015) showed that this theory was the most systematic approach that has a role in teaching Persian. 2.2. Studies done outside of Iran Goodman (1976) in a study titled as reading, a psycholinguistic guessing game specified that employing the background knowledge modifies reading into a natural process. The findings of Dechant (1991) also showed that the corresponding of new information with the old one done in the socio-psycholinguistic model leads to better comprehension. Landberg (1993) refers to motivation growth while using metacognitive strategies. The discoveries of Mckeown (2002), Nation, (2001), and Schmitt (2010) explained the important role of vocabulary in listening, writing, and speaking skills. James (2007) and Torres and Constain (2009) demonstrated that interactional models play an essential role in reading comprehension. They also addressed that learners were interested in using question-answering, summary, explanation, and prediction strategies compared to contrasting and conceptual maps in reading comprehension. The findings of Stoller et al., (2013) revealed that using new vocabularies and their analyses and categories are efficient techniques in vocabulary learning. 3. Theoretical Framework Reading is an important skill in elementary school as the various social, instructional, cultural, psychological, and linguistic factors play a role in its acquisition (Seraj et al., 2022). Therefore, the study of reading comprehension from interactional multi-dimensional approaches can help recognize the challenges of this skill and remove its obstacles to improve the comprehension and literacy of students. As such, this study is done based on socio-psychological approach (Anderson, 1994, 2012), the theory in which text meaning is a reciprocal process between reader and text and the reader understands the meaning through interaction with the text. In this trichotomy approach, the relationship between the reader and the text is done through social, psychological, and linguistic sections. In the language part, reading comprehension is done based on readers' language experience. The psychological section refers to language at the cognitive level and its analytic-combinational. The sociological part is the readers' nonlinguistic contextual knowledge in reading comprehension. The six strategies in this model are: activating prior knowledge, cultivating vocabulary, teaching for comprehension, increasing reading rate, verifying strategies, and evaluating progress. Teaching comprehension has three sides of instructional content, teacher and students. Activating prior knowledge, cultivating vocabulary, and verifying strategies are related to the instrument of instructional content that is studied. 3.1. Activate Prior Knowledge Anderson (1994, pp.178-179) believes that activating prior knowledge facilitates comprehension and reading skills. Using semantic mapping and brainstorming, pictures, and asking questions on text subjects before reading activates prior knowledge. 3.2. Cultivate Vocabularies Direct techniques of vocabulary teaching through parts of speech, word type of unknown word context, discussing unknown words, teaching words along or separate from other language activities such as knowing the spelling rules, analyzing word structure, memorizing, paraphrasing, attention to context, using various techniques and predicting the morphological, syntactic and semantic features of words help learners to extend their vocabularies (Anderson, 2014, p.181). 3.3. Verify Strategies Anderson (1994, pp.185-187) explains that continuous verifying of reading strategies and methods are the most important techniques for reading comprehension. He categorizes this strategy into the three cognitive, metacognitive, and compensatory strategies as below: a) Cognitive strategies: They are related to the processing of text through thought. Examining the theme, predicting the content, analyzing the expressions into their smaller parts, and summarizing belong to this strategy. b) Metacognitive strategy: It is the conscious application of knowledge for compensating the text. Thinking aloud, oral reports, introducing related words, working with classmates, and reviewing the previous knowledge belong to this strategy (ibid, 186-188). c) Compensatory strategies: They are employed to compensate for the other deficient strategies. Team reading in groups of two or three individuals, various reading texts, using physical activities and hot chairs belong to this strategy. 4. Methodology This study is a descriptive-analytic research from the methodology point of view. In terms of objective, it is practical research. It aims to analyze the reading strategies in Farsi’s book for grade six in elementary school based on a socio-psycholinguistic model of Anderson (1994 & 2012). The population of this study includes all Farsi books of the second period of elementary school and the Farsi book of sixth grade is its sample. The instrument is a research-made checklist codified based on Anderson's (1994, 2012) model. It includes 3 strategies, 26 techniques, and 7 sub-techniques. The book is analyzed according to this checklist and the extent of its correspondence was clarified quantitatively. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis H test was employed to compare the strategies employed in this book. 5. Results The results showed that activating prior knowledge, cultivating vocabulary, and verifying strategies were used in this textbook. However, the frequency and variety of these techniques were low. Among the techniques of activating prior knowledge, only semantic mapping was used for 10.29%. Teaching without considering other activities, memorizing, and paying attention to words' context are the techniques of cultivating vocabulary strategy used for 10.08%. The verifying strategy techniques used in this book were 23.52%. They include focusing on grammar, understanding the theme, analyzing the theme, summarizing, thinking aloud individually and thinking aloud in groups of two or three persons, text varieties, oral reports, working with classmates, and reviewing previous knowledge. Although the frequency and technique varieties of verifying strategies were more than the other two strategies, its low frequency indicates that it does not correspond with the interactional model of reading comprehension. Among the employed techniques, semantic mapping, teaching vocabulary without language activities, text varieties for thinking aloud, and reviewing prior knowledge were the most frequent ones in this book. Long chapters are organized into short lessons with various titles making learners make less effort and cause more encouragement to read texts. Introducing chapters or lessons without expressing their aims makes lessons have no meaningful relation with each other. Using only comprehension questions gets exercises to be introduced without variety. Moreover, the following techniques have not been seen all over this book: teamwork to do exercises, variety in teaching vocabulary, direct word teaching, and work with classmates to extend reading comprehension ability. 6. Conclusion As textbooks are important instruments in the teaching-learning process in helping teachers to reach instructional objectives and providing mental practices and knowledge for students, the reading comprehension strategies in Farsi’s book of sixth grade based on the socio-psycholinguistic theory of Anderson (1994, 2012) were studied. The findings are: 1- Activity prior knowledge, cultivate vocabulary and verify strategies have low frequency and variety. Generally, the content of this book regarding these strategies does not correspond with this approach. This finding is contrary to the first hypothesis. 2- Although verifying strategies are more frequent compared to activating background knowledge and cultivating vocabulary, this book in applying this strategy is not successful. This finding is also against the second hypothesis. 3- The structure of chapters and lessons are organized in a way that encourages readers to read the book while employing exercises without variety and using chapters and lessons without introducing their objectives making lessons have no relation with each other causing learners' motivation to be reduced. This finding is in agreement with the third hypothesis خواندن فرایندی پیچیده‌ است که استفاده از راهبردهای درک به فراگیران کمک ‌می‌کند تا با برقراری تعامل بیشتر با متن، درک بهتری از آن داشته باشند. هدف این مقالۀ توصیفی ـ تحلیلی بررسی کتاب‌ فارسی ششم دورۀ دوم ابتدایی باتوجه‌به سه راهبرد فعال‌سازی دانش پیشین، گسترش گنجینۀ واژگان و بازبینی و 26 تکنیکِ درک خواندن از انگاره اجتماعی ـ روان‌شناسی زبانِ اندرسون (1994 & 2012) است تا همسویی این منبع آموزشی با رویکرد فوق و تکنیک‌های شناختی، فراشناختی و جبرانی آن روشن شود. دراین‌راستا، پیکرۀ متشکل ‌از 79 راهبرد استخراج‌شده از متون و همۀ تمرین‌های این کتاب شامل بخش‌های درک مطلب، درک ‌و ‌دریافت، خوانش‌ و‌ فهم، دانش (زبانی و ادبی)، بازی و گوش‌کن‌و‌بگو، برمبنای نمون‌برگ محقق‌ساخته مطالعه شد. تحلیل داده‌ها نشان داد که اگرچه از هر سه راهبرد استفاده شده، فراوانی و تنوع تکنیک‌ها بسیار پایین و کتاب فوق ناهمسو ‌با این رویکرد است. سازمان‌ دادن فصل‌های کتاب به درس‌هایی با عناوین متنوع و بخش‌هایی نظیر بخوان و حفظ ‌کن، حکایت، بخوان‌ و ‌بیندیش و گوش‌کن ‌و ‌بگو، رغبت بیشتری برای خواندن متون ایجاد می‌کند. تکنیک‌های تنوع در آموزش واژه، کار با هم‌کلاسی برای گسترش مهارت خواندن، آموزش واژه به‌همراه دیگر فعالیت‌های زبانی، آموزش صریح واژه، آموزش واژه جدای ‌از سایر فعالیت‌های زبانی، طرح‌واره‌های واژگانی، روابط مفهومی، به‌خاطر‌سپاری و تمرین در‌رابطه‌ با آن‌ها نیز برای آموزش واژه استفاده نشده است. داده‌های بازبینی راهبردها نشان داد که راهبردهای فراشناختی فراوانی بیشتری در مقایسه ‌با راهبردهای شناختی دارند. توجه ‌به تکنیک‌های مرور دانسته‌های پیشین و تنوع متون خواندنی از نقاط قوت و عدم توجه ‌به تمرین‌های گروهی در پرورش و تقویت تفکر انتقادی فراگیران از نقاط ضعف کتاب حاضر در تدوین محتوا محسوب می‌شود.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Syntactic and Semantic Analysis of the "Xastan" Verb in Persian (A Corpus Ù based Analysis in Role and Reference Grammar Framework) بررسی نحوی و معنایی فعل «خواستن» در زبان فارسی: (تحلیلی پیکره‌بنیاد در چارچوب دستور نقش و ارجاع) 237 273 7448 10.48311/LRR.15.4.237 FA پریسا نجفی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران. جلال رحیمیان استاد زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران. 0000-0003-2280-9508 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The Persian verb "xâstan" exhibits a dual nature, functioning both as an auxiliary verb and a lexical verb. As a lexical verb, it conveys a range of meanings expressed through various syntactic structures. This research delved into the syntactic and semantic aspects of the mentioned verb in different constructions. The authors proposed that Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), with its focus on complex structures, could provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing the constructions under consideration. RRG conceptualizes complex structures based on "Interclausal Relations Hierarchy", which comprises two syntactic and semantic continua. The syntactic continuum examines juncture-nexus relations, while the semantic continuum explores the type of semantic relations based on the main predicate. This study endeavored to describe the various applications of the verb "xâstan" within the mentioned framework. Additionally, the research findings were employed to evaluate the tenets of RRG. The findings revealed that, semantically, the verb "xâstan" fell within the categories of psych-action, jussive, and propositional attitude predicates. Syntactically, it manifested in the forms of core cosubordination and core subordination. The data for this research were extracted from the corpus of Hamshahri 2. 1. Introduction The Persian verb "xâstan" exhibits a multifaceted nature, encompassing a range of grammatical functions and conveying a spectrum of interconnected meanings. Due to its versatile nature, this verb has garnered significant attention in linguistic studies not only in Persian but also in other languages. It is observed that the verb "xâstan" in Persian contributes to the formation of diverse structural and semantic constructions. Accordingly, the present study aimed to delve into this verb within the framework of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG). To achieve this objective, we began by examining the syntactic and semantic dimensions of the verb followed by an evaluation of interclausal relations hierarchy based on the research findings. A distinctive aspect of this research lies in its simultaneous consideration of both syntactic and semantic levels, along with elucidating the interplay between these two levels within the constructions under investigation. Ultimately, the central research questions guiding this study were as follows: 1. How are the syntactic and semantic representations of the various types of the verb "xâstan" in Persian characterized? 2. Do the research findings support or contradict the interclausal relations hierarchy? 2. Literature Review Previous research primarily focused on the role of the verb "xâstan" as both an auxiliary verb (expressing future tense) and a lexical verb that conveyed modal meanings alongside the concept of "wanting" or "desiring." In this context, Dixon (1995, 2002, 2005) categorized this verb as a secondary verb. Secondary verbs function as modifiers for primary verbs and maintain a grammatical relationship with them. In Example 1, the verb "xâstan" describes the participant's mental state regarding the performance of an action, while also directly relating to the primary verb goftan in representing grammatical categories, such as tense and negation. Example 1: nemixaham raje be ehsasatam doruogh beguyam. I don't want to lie about my feelings. Other studies considered its modal (volitional) role, classifying it as a modal verb that formed a complex predicate with the verb expressing the main event (Bruno, 2016; Corral Esteban, 2016; Nolan, 2012; Labutis, 2002). Additionally, in semantic classifications of complement-taking verbs, it fell under the category of desiderative verbs (Noonan, 2007; Cristofaro, 2003). Beyond the roles previously mentioned for "xâstan", this verb could also express future tense and was equivalent to the English verb "will." Van Lennep and LaPolla (1997, p. 41) acknowledged that there were two perspectives on "will" in English: 1) Considering it a modal verb expressing intention or will, while simultaneously indicating future tense; and 2) Viewing it as an auxiliary verb solely indicating future tense. Ultimately, they adopted the latter perspective in their analysis. Moezipour (2020) categorized the Persian verb "xâstan" as a transitive lexical verb that could also function as an auxiliary (modal) verb expressing volitional modality and appearing in the periphrastic future tense. Based on Role and RRG, he argued that the verb "xâstan" served as a definite (auxiliary) verb in a simple single-clausal construction to refer to the future tense. Davari and Naghzgooy (2016) conducted a synchronic study examining the evolution of the verb "xâstan." They proposed that during the Middle Persian period, this verb functioned as a modal verb, while also carrying the lexical meanings of "request" and "desire". Additionally, evidence from this period suggested another usage of "xâstan" in the sense of "to summon," which further contributed to its modal interpretation due to the inherent grammatical concepts of "request" and "command". In essence, the verb's trajectory reflected a transition from a lexical verb with the concepts of request, command, and compulsion to the concept of volition and then the concept of future. Other relevant studies included Lenepveu (2010), Jahani (2008), Ghafar Samar & Bhatia (2017), Anoushe (2018), Sabzevari (2004), and Mirza'ie (2021). 3. Methodology This research employed a descriptive-analytical approach to investigate the data. The authors believed that hypothesis testing should be based on empirical and objective evidence, meaning that the criterion for correctness or incorrectness is concrete and practical evidence rather than linguistic intuition. Therefore, the corpus of Hamshahri 2 (Al-e Ahmad et al., 2009) served as the foundation for data extraction. The corpus comprised 150 million words and consisted of various cultural, literary, political, scientific, and social genres from the years 1367 to 1387 (1988-2008). Using computer programs, all occurrences of the verb "xâstan" in the corpus were extracted, totaling 109,094 instances. From this number, 1092 instances were randomly selected and analyzed. 4. Results This research endeavored to examine the various applications of the verb "xâstan" in Persian within the framework of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), using the corpus of Hamshahri 2. Based on the semantics of the predicate of "xâstan" in different constructions, the existence of 3 types of semantic relationships was established: psych-action, jussive, and propositional attitude. Data analysis revealed that psych-action and jussive constructions exhibited a core cosubordination relationship in the syntactic dimension based on the juncture-nexus relation, while propositional attitude constructions exhibited a daughter core subordination relationship. Additionally, the verb "xâstan" possessed a grammatical function and therefore served as an operator. This operator functioned as an auxiliary verb expressing future tense and perfect aspect. In the interclausal relations hierarchy, the constructions under investigation were arranged as follows: psych-action < jussive < propositional attitude. The research findings demonstrated that the aforementioned sequence in the interclausal relations hierarchy was valid and the Persian language data regarding the constructions involving the verb "xâstan" corroborated the iconicity inherent in the interclausal relations hierarchy. فعل «خواستن» در زبان فارسی دارای ماهیتی دوگانه است، به گونه‌ای که می‌تواند هم‌زمان به‌عنوان فعل کمکی و فعل واژگانی به‌کار رود. «خواستن» در مقام فعل واژگانی مبین معانی مختلفی است که در قالب ساختارهای متفاوتی نیز بیان می‌شود. بر این اساس، هدف پژوهش حاضر بحث و بررسی ابعاد نحوی و معنایی این فعل در ساخت‌های مختلف است. نگارندگان معتقدند که دستور نقش و ارجاع با رویکردی که به مطالعۀ ساخت‌های مرکب دارد، می‌تواند از عهدۀ توصیف همه‌جانبۀ ساخت‌های مورد نظر بر‌آید. در این دستور ساخت‌های مرکب براساس «سلسله‌مراتب میان‌بندی» تبیین می‌شوند. سلسله‌مراتب مذکور خود متشکل از دو پیوستار نحوی و معنایی است. در بُعد نحوی روابط الحاق ـ پیوند مد نظر هستند و در پیوستار معنایی نوع روابط معنایی براساس محمول اصلی مطرح است. در همین راستا تلاش شد که انواع کاربردهای فعل «خواستن» براساس سلسله‌مراتب توصیف شوند و از این رهیافت نیز مفروضات دستور نقش و ارجاع بر مبنای یافته‌های پژوهش آزموده شوند. برخی یافته‌ها حاکی از آن است که فعل «خواستن» به جهت معنایی در زمرۀ محمول‌های روان ـ کنش، سببی امری و نگرش گزاره‌ای جای می‌گیرد و در بُعد نحوی نیز در قالب هم‌وابستگی مرکزی و ناهم‌پایگی مرکزی بروز می‌یابد. گفتنی است داده‌های پژوهش حاضر برگرفته از پیکرۀ همشهری 2 هستند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7448_987b75e2727ae55289abd70d3f5864e6.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 A Correlation between Speech Intelligibility and Vowel Acoustic Measurements in Persian Speaking Spastic Cerebral Palsy Children with Dysarthria بررسی هم‌بستگی بین وضوح گفتار و سنجش‌های آکوستیکی واکه‌ها در کودکان فارسی زبان دارای دیزآتری ناشی از فلج مغزی اسپاستیک 275 302 7449 10.48311/LRR.15.4.275 FA مریم مخلصین مرکز تحقیقات توانبخشی عصبی عضلانی، دانشگاه علوم پزشکی سمنان، سمنان، ایران2. گروه گفتاردرمانی، دانشگاه علوم توانبخشی و سلامت اجتماعی، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-1728-9931 ماندانا نوربخش گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشکده ادبیات، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-2554-0727 بنفشه منصوری مرکز تحقیقات توان‌بخشی عصبی عضلانی، دانشگاه علوم پزشکی سمنان، سمنان، ایران رضوانه ناهیدی کمیتۀ تحقیقات دانشجویی، دانشگاه علوم پزشکی سمنان، سمنان، ایران 0000-0001-8612-0609 ندا طهماسبی گروه گفتاردرمانی، دانشگاه علوم توان‌بخشی و سلامت اجتماعی، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-4123-827X Journal Article 1970 01 01 One of the dysarthria features is inaccurate articulation of consonants and vowels, which is the main cause of speech unintelligibility. However, it is not clear what acoustic measures are more related to speech intelligibility in dysarthria. On the other hand, the number of vowels, their articulation and acoustic characteristics are various in different languages. As far as we know, no study investigated vowels articulation in developmental dysarthria in Persian, so there is not enough information about movement details which make their inaccuracies articulation. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate some acoustic measures including vowel formants, vowel space area (VSA), formant centralization ratio (FCR) and vowel articulation index (VAI) and aim to study their correlation with speech intelligibility in Persian speaking children with dysarthria due to spastic cerebral palsy. In this cross ـ sectional study, 11 monolingual children with dysarthria aged 3 ـ 9 years and their typically developing matched peers were selected through convenience sampling. For each of the six Persian vowels, two monosyllable words were acoustically analyzed using PRAAT software. To determine intelligibility of words and vowels, the percentage of correct detected ones was calculated. Results showed a significant difference between the two groups in the third formant of the vowels /a/ and /u/ and the second formant of the vowel /o/. The vowel space area and intelligibility were significantly reduced in dysarthria. VAS was more correlated with intelligibility and is a good acoustic measurement to assess speech intelligibility in dysarthria. However all three studied acoustic indices had moderate significant correlation with intelligibility. 1. Introduction Abnormalities in power, speed, range, muscle tone, stability, and accuracy of movements necessary for respiration, phonation, production, articulation, or prosodic aspects of speech lead to dysarthria (Duffy, 2019). Depending on the location of the damage in the nervous system, there are different types of dysarthria and each creates different speech characteristics (Duffy, 2019). Cerebral palsy is one of the main causes of dysarthria in children. One of the main and distinctive features of dysarthria is imprecise production, which is the main factor for low speech intelligibility (De Bodt et al., 2002). However, there is limited information on the motor features that cause this inaccuracy in children’s production, and awareness of these motor events is a prerequisite for providing appropriate therapeutic approaches (Allison et al., 2017). If we consider syllables as speech motor units (Yunusova et al., 2008) and vowels as the core components of syllables, vowel distortion can affect the structure of syllables and consequently speech. Describing the vowels of a language has more auditory aspects than articulatory ones. However, gradually linguistics realized that if the vowels of a language are displayed based on F1 and F2 features, the result will be a two-dimensional space that they named vowel space. Since speech intelligibility is the primary goal of clinical interventions, and since vowels are a good predictor of speech intelligibility in dysarthria, it is necessary to accurately determine the correctness and accuracy of vowels with the help of appropriate diagnostic or perceptual tools to assess the effects of direct and indirect therapies on the proper production of vowels and the improvement of speech intelligibility. This diagnosis guides therapists in selecting appropriate treatment methods or continuing therapy. Research Question(s) Is the formant of each of the 6 vowels in Persian-speaking children with spastic dysarthria different from that of typically developing children? Are speech intelligibility, acoustic parameters of vowel space, vowel production indices, and formant centralization ratio different in children with dysarthria based on age? Is there a correlation between some acoustic parameters of vowels and speech intelligibility? 2. Literature Review In 2019, a study was conducted in China on the Mandarin language with the aim of determining acoustic parameters for speech evaluation in children with dysarthria due to cerebral palsy. Thirty children aged 5 to 15 with cerebral palsy and 13 typically developing children participated in the study. Formants F1 and F2 were calculated for vowels /a, i, u/. The VSA, VAI, and FCR indices were also calculated and analyzed. In children with cerebral palsy, there were significant differences in F1 and F2 for the vowel /a/ and F2 for the vowel /i/, while there were no significant differences in F1 and F2 for the vowel /u/ and F1 for the vowel /i/. There were significant differences between the two groups in the FCR, VAI, and VSA indices (Mou et al., 2019). In another study in 2017 aimed at improving the understanding of speech characteristics related to dysarthria in English-speaking children with cerebral palsy in the United States, formants were analyzed at the word and sentence levels. The speech of 10 children with dysarthria due to cerebral palsy was compared to 10 typically developing children. The results showed that children with dysarthria had a smaller vowel space compared to typically developing children at both the word and sentence levels (Allison et al., 2017). The same researchers conducted another study in 2018 with the aim of determining acoustic characteristics of connected speech in children with dysarthria due to cerebral palsy and typically developing children. Twenty children with dysarthria were matched with typically developing children in terms of age and gender. The results showed that children with dysarthria differ from typically developing children in terms of speech-segmental and suprasegmental features (Allison & Hustad, 2018). In 2016, a study titled “Vowel Intelligibility in Children with or without Dysarthria” was conducted. Researchers in this exploratory study examined the vowel intelligibility of American English vowels in American children. Generally, children with dysarthria had lower vowel intelligibility compared to typically developing children, but there was no statistically significant difference in intelligibility among different vowels. These studies highlight the significance of focusing on the vowel system during therapy to enhance intelligibility (Levy et al., 2016). 3. Methodology In the present cross-sectional study, 11 children with spastic dysarthria due to cerebral palsy were selected from rehabilitation clinics in Semnan city, and 11 typically developing age- and gender-matched children from preschools and primary schools in the same city. The inclusion criteria for children with cerebral palsy in the study were mild to moderate dysarthria due to spastic cerebral palsy, aged 3 to 9 years, and the ability to produce single words. Exclusion criteria were the presence of sensory or motor problems, bilingualism, dysphagia, and difficulties in producing consonants present in test words. Initially, 12 monosyllabic words with a CVC structure including 2 words for each of the 6 vowels in the Persian language were selected by a linguist and a speech-language pathologist, which were simple to produce in terms of consonants and did not affect the central vowel. Each word was uttered twice, so 4 words were spoken for each vowel, with 3 of them selected for formant analysis using PRAAT software. Subsequently, the spoken words by each child were presented to adults unfamiliar with the child, who were free of hearing or language issues, to write down the words after hearing them. The researchers determined the number of correct words and the vowels identified by adults to establish the percentage of vowel and speech intelligibility for each child. Finally, the two groups of children were compared in terms of vowel space and speech intelligibility. 4. Results In this study, each group of children with normal speech and dysarthria included 4 girls and 7 boys with a minimum age of 3.5 and a maximum age of 9 years. The mean age in children with dysarthria was 1.9 ± 5.6 years and in the group with normal speech was 1.8 ± 5.7 years, with no significant difference between them (p > 0.05). Since results in speech production change with age due to vocal tract lengthening and children’s motor skill development, the children in this study were categorized into 2 subgroups of 3.6 to 6 years and 6 to 9 years. Comparison of vowels in children with dysarthria and their age-matched typically developing peers using the Mann-Whitney test showed a significant difference between the two groups only in 6 to 9-year-old children in the first formant of /i/ and /æ/ vowels, the second formant of /æ/ vowel, and also the third formant of /e/ and /a/ vowels. Speech intelligibility at the single-word and vowel level, acoustic parameters of vowel space, vowel production indices, and formant centralization ratio were compared between the two groups of children with dysarthria at different ages using the Mann-Whitney test, which showed a significant difference in word and vowel intelligibility between the two groups. All acoustic indices also showed a significant difference between the two groups. Vowel space, calculated based on the /a/, /i/, and /u/ side vowels in this study, was smaller in the group of children with dysarthria compared to the normal group. In both age groups, the dispersion of vowel production in the dysarthric group was higher compared to the normal children. The results of the Spearman correlation coefficient test showed a significant moderate relationship between all indices of vowels and speech intelligibility. This relationship was direct for the Vowel Space Area (VSA) and Vowel Articulatory Index (VAI) and inverse for the Formant Centralization Ratio (FCR). یکی از ویژگی‌های گفتار فلجی (دیزآرتری)، تولید غیردقیق واکه‌ها و همخوان‌هاست که عامل اصلی وضوح پایین گفتار است. با این حال هنوز مشخص نیست کدام شاخص‌های آکوستیکی با وضوح گفتار در این اختلال ارتباط قوی‌تری دارد. از طرف دیگر تعداد واکه‌ها، ویژگی‌های تولیدی و آکوستیکی آن‌ها در زبان‌های مختلف متفاوت است. تاآنجاکه می‌دانیم مطالعه‌ای روی تولید واکه‌ها در دیزآرتری دوران رشد در فارسی وجود ندارد، بنابراین درمورد جزئیات حرکتی که باعث بی‌دقتی‌ در تلفظ آن‌ها می‌شود اطلاعات کافی موجود نیست. ازاین‌رو مطالعۀ حاضر با هدف بررسی برخی شاخص‌های آکوستیکی شامل فرمنت واکه‌ها، شاخص‌ آکوستیکی فضای واکه‌ای (VSA)، نسبت مرکزی ‌شدن فرمنت‌ها (FCR) و شاخص تولید واکه (VAI) و نیز رابطۀ آن‌ها‌ با وضوح گفتار در کودکان فارسی‌زبان مبتلا به دیزآرتری ناشی از فلج‌مغزی اسپاستیک انجام شد. در این مطالعۀ مقطعی، 11 کودک تک‌زبانه دارای دیزآرتری ناشی از فلج مغزی سفت 9 ـ 3 ساله و همتایان سالم به روش در دسترس انتخاب شدند. برای هر یک از 6 واکۀ زبان فارسی 2 کلمۀ تک‌هجایی از طریق نرم‌افزار PRAAT مورد تحلیل آکوستیکی قرار گیرد. وضوح کلمه و واکه نیز به‌صورت میانگین درصد موارد قابل تشخیص محاسبه شد. نتایج آزمون نشان داد تفاوت معنادار بین دو گروه در فرمنت سوم واکه‌های /a/ و /u/ و فرمنت دوم واکه /o/ وجود داشت. فضای واکه‌ای و وضوح گفتار در کودکان دیزآرتری به‌طور معناداری کاهش داشت. VAS بیشترین هم‌بستگی را با وضوح داشت و شاخص آکوستیکی مناسبی برای بررسی وضوح گفتار در دیزآرتری است. با‌این‌حال هر سه شاخص آکوستیکی مورد مطالعه رابطۀ معنادار متوسطی با وضوح داشت.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7449_0a2298a72858d90d5c4b4fee954b6896.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 TA Review on: Why Does FerÄ«dÅn Mean the "Third"? Decoding the Mystery of FerÄ«dÅnâs Name According to Function Analysis of Myth: A Study in Historical Linguistics (Diachronic Etymology). نقدی بر مقاله: چرا فریدون سومین است؟ رمزگشایی نام فریدون با روش تحلیل خویشکاری اسطوره بر مبنای زبان‌شناسی تاریخی (ریشه‌شناسی در زمانی)1 303 329 7450 10.48311/LRR.15.4.303 FA مجید پوراحمد دانش‌آموخته مقطع دکتری رشته فرهنگ و زبان‌های باستانی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 The purpose of this essay is to review one of Frazad Qaemi’s papers: “Why Does Ferīdōn mean the "Third"? Decoding the Mystery of Ferīdōn’s Name According to Function Analysis of Myth: A Study in Historical Linguistics (Diachronic Etymology)”. The paper shows the writer was not specialist in the subject matter he discussed. Due to his unfamiliarity with the concepts, initial knowledge and the resources of this area, made his analysis and conclusions were flawed. Nevertheless, the way he refers to other works is too unaccustomed, they mostly show that the writer, Qaemi, trying to refer his incorrect thoughts and analysis to reliable sources, and with this technique, he was trying to prove the audience that his incorrect analysis and ideas are correct. Aside from that, Qaemi, used the analysis and accomplishment of other writers, but unfortunately, he did not refer to them in his paper, implying that they were his own, which is clearly plagiarism. The paper contains many errors, making it a good example for methodology courses as it shows students what they should avoid in a journal paper. 1. Introduction Qaemi’s paper focus on why Fereydun’s epithet is “The Third”. He tried to explore connections between this title with the haoma-preesing rite and the three-brother pattern in Iranian Mythology. Qaemi also examined other subjects and finally considered a three-part Dissociation in Iranian myth. These are the most important topics of the paper. There are two kind of references for supporting these analysis and ideas, 1: pre- and post-Islamic text. 2- Other scholars’ works. First, his reasoning and analysis for connecting Fereydun to haoma-pressing function are incorrect because some scholars like Mayrehofer and Boyce point to Vedic texts where Trita appears as the first soma-presser. In Iranian texts, Ābtin (Fereydun’s father) called the second haoma-presser and Freydun’s name is not among haoma-pressing at all. Secondly, the concept of three-brother pattern may be more like a pattern not a function and this idea, like the previous one, does not align with how Fereydun’s myth portrayed in the texts. Therefore, the texts that he used in his paper not only support his analysis and conclusions but also are against them. The texts and resources he mentioned appear irrelevant to the discussions and arguments or sometimes been referred incorrectly. Needless to say conspicuously absent from Qaemi’s analysis is Fereydun’s well established as a dragon slayer. This review tries to show the mistakes occurred by Qaemi in his paper. 2. Method Firstly, the method of this review is to track Qaemi’s references to verify their accuracy. Secondly, it examines these sources to identify any potential plagiarism or improper citation practices. Besides, this review aims to rectify Qamei’s mistakes (=errors). 3. Results Through a close analysis of Qaemi’s paper, this review arrives at the following conclusions: 1- The writer had no particular expertise in the topic he chose for his paper. 2- Plagiarism; he used other scholars accomplishment without referring to them. 3- The author used inaccurate references to persuade the audience to agree with his misguided analysis and conclusions. 4- Using Wikipedia in a journal paper. All of this leads the paper to unfavorable scholastic outcomes. It is worth mentioning that this review does not contain every mistakes in Qaemi’s paper just few instances. در این نوشته به نقد مقاله «چرا فریدون سومین است؟ رمزگشایی نام فریدون با روش تحلیل خویشکاری اسطوره بر مبنای زبان‌شناسی تاریخی (ریشه‌شناسی در زمانی)» از آقای فرزاد قائمی پرداخته‌ایم. از مقاله این‌گونه برمی‌آید که نویسنده در حوزه‌ای مطلب نوشته که در آن تخصصی نداشته است. ناآشنایی نویسنده با مفاهیم، مقدمات و منابعِ حوزه مورد نظر، باعث شده نظرات و تحلیل‌های ایشان نادرست از کار درآیند. علاوه بر تحلیل‌ها و نظرات نادرست، نوع ارجاع‌دهی‌ها هم در مقاله آقای قائمی عجیب است و بیشتر ارجاعات به‌گونه‌ای‌ است که نویسنده فقط خواسته نظرات نادرستش را به منبعی ارجاع دهد تا نشان دهد که حرف و نظرش مستند است. علاوه بر این‌ها نویسنده مطالبی را (بعضاً عین‌به‌عین) از پژوهشگر(ان) دیگری برداشته، اما متأسفانه به ایشان ارجاع نداده است. از آنجا که اشتباهات این‌چنینی در مقاله فراوان است می‌توان آن را نمونه خوبی برای واحد درسی روش تحقیق به‌شمار آورد، زیرا به‌طور عملی به دانشجویان نشان می‌دهد که چه کارهایی را نباید در یک مقاله علمی ـ پژوهشی انجام داد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7450_234e691320c0ad5b45ee3c96d0d7b8f8.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 The Network of Implicit Interpretation in the Code of Criminal Procedure from a Functional Perspective شبکۀ تفسیر ضمنی در قانون آیین دادرسی کیفری از منظر نقش‌گرا 331 359 7451 10.48311/LRR.15.4.331 FA محمد هاتفی استادیار پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 Previous research have considered presupposed knowledge as a communicational difficulty in conceiving the meaning of the articles of the legal cods by the reader / addressee. The main question is this: to which extent is the scope of the presumed knowledge? The hypothesis in this research, based on the functional grammar approach, is that the scope of presumed knowledge extends to the extent that in-text and out-of-text references expand the scope of text and meaning. We, in implementation, based on some selective and incidental articles from the Code of Criminal Procedure (CCP), have followed the scope of their references in order to discover its in-text and out-of-text network. The research results show that the domain of presumed knowledge, networked, includes all law codes, legal texts, legal theories, judicial structure, and related knowledge. The following types of references continuously delay the meaning of the clause and article to the last frontiers of presupposed knowledge: explicit references (in-text and out-of-text), implicit references (in-text and out-of-text) including: heterogeneous references, concurrent references, iterative references, and negative reference. Heterogeneous references show that criminal laws (Code of Criminal Procedure, Penal Code, and other criminal codes) focus on the "crime" as the core signifier reflecting the network of knowledge which is presupposed. The results show that any reference, even explicit reference, creates a level of communication complexity and becomes more difficult when the articles, rules, and texts refer to each other back and forth. Introduction Law articles are often known for their complexity and difficulty (incomprehensibility), having specialized words, long sentences, etc. that have been mentioned as factors for this complexity and difficulty. Even in places where the text of the article has no difficulty in terms of words and has a very simple syntax, the inability of readers to understand these texts is reported. It seems that the global simplification movement has not been very effective in solving the problem so far. Hatefi (2020) examines the difficulty of legal language by focusing on Articles 1 to 7 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, within the framework of Halliday's Functional Grammar, and considers the greatest difficulty in the language of law to be due to the implicit knowledge that the legislature places on presuppositions. It forces the reader to receive the clauses of the articles through implicit interpretation. The main question is what the scope of the presupposed knowledge is? The research hypothesis, based on the Systemic Functional Grammar, is that the scope of presupposed knowledge extends to the extent that in-text and out-of-text references expand the scope of text and meaning. Literature review In analyzing the difficulty and complexity of the legal language in general, and the language of the codes in particular, there are two approaches: the traditional approach and the modern approach. The traditional approach in examining the difficulty of legal language focuses on words (Habibi, 1995; Mirbabaei, 2012; Salehi Rad, 2012). The modern approach pays attention to syntactic difficulties and tries theoretical approaches to examine the difficulty of the language of law (Crandall & Charrow, 2000; Gibbons, 2003; Tiersma, 1999). In addition to the lexical aspects, they also consider two grammatical and semantic aspects with respect to the difficulty of legal language. Syntactic features such as having long and complex sentences, excessive use of unknown construction, indefinite reference of pronouns, repeated negation, nomenclature, and use of reference letters or punctuation were also taken into account. Latifikhah (2002) and Roshan & Behboodi (2009) have mentioned compound sentences, impersonal constructions, unknown constructions, and follower constructions as difficult factors in legal language. Hatefi (2020) examines the difficulty of legal language by focusing on Articles 1 to 7 of the Code of Civil Procedure, within the framework of Halliday's Functional Grammar, and considers the greatest difficulty in the language of law to be due to the added presupposed knowledge that the legislature burden on the reader and forces him/his to receive the text of the articles by implicit interpretation. The novelty of the present study is that it reveals the scope of presupposed knowledge taken in the text of the law and the different methods of presupposing and interpreting it. Methodology The present article has chosen the Code of Criminal Procedure as the main corpus in research. In the process of analysis, I will first randomly select some articles of this act by the discussion, and then, by following the path of references in the text of the code and other codes and sources, I will add to it. The theory and method of analysis in this paper is Systemic Functional Grammar. From a functional point of view, language is a system of communication. According to the Systemic Functional Grammar, form and structure serve the role of communication, and everything is explained by reference to the communicative and functional role of language (Halliday, 1994: xiii). Results The results of the research showed that any reference, even explicit reference, has a suspensive role in the meaning of the paragraph, and therefore, as in-text and extra-text references are added, the scope of the text becomes more open and the reader becomes more confused to communicate with the text. The present study shows that in teaching and reading the articles of the code, the reader should receive each concept in a network by linking each article of the code with other articles of that code and with all the legal knowledge. This connection becomes more difficult when articles, codes, and texts refer to each other back and forth. The scope of references indicates the scope of presupposed knowledge for understanding the Code of Criminal Procedure and any legal text, including all laws and legal sources. Within the reference network of criminal law, the concept of "crime" as a central signifier is at the center of the reference and knowledge network. References through repetition, concurrency, negative references, and heterogeneous references are implicit referencing methods that impose more complexity on the reader's relationship to the text of the code. Therefore, in order to reduce the difficulty and complexity of the reader's relationship with the text of criminal law, it is better for the legislator to separate the clauses arising from the two disciplines of crime (criminology) and punishment as much as possible by providing a clear representation of the meaning of crime. پژوهش‌های پیشین وجود دانش ضمنی پیش‌فرض گرفته‌شده توسط مقنن در قوانین را از علل دشواری ارتباط خواننده / مخاطب قانون با متن مواد آن دانسته است. پرسش اصلی این است که دامنه و گسترۀ دانش ضمنی پیش‌فرض‌گرفته شده چقدر است؟ فرضیۀ پژوهش، براساس رویکرد دستور زبان نقش‌گرا، این است که دامنۀ دانش ضمنی تا جایی است که ارجاعات درون‌متنی و برون‌متنی دامنۀ متن و معنا را گسترش می‌دهد. شیوۀ اجرا به این صورت است که با مبنا قراردادن برخی مواد گزینشی و اتفاقی از قانون آیین دادرسی کیفری (ق.آ.د.ک)، دامنۀ ارجاعات آن‌ها را پی گرفته‌ایم تا شبکۀ درون‌متنی و برون‌متنی آن کشف شود. نتایج تحقیق نشان می‌دهد دامنۀ دانش ضمنی پیش‌فرض‌گرفته شده، به گونه‌ای شبکه‌ای، تمام قوانین، متون حقوقی، نظریه‌های حقوقی، ساختار قضائی، و دانش‌های مرتبط را شامل می‌شود. انواع ارجاعات زیر پیوسته معنای بند را تا آخرین مرزهای دانش ضمنی به تعویق و تأخیر می‌اندازد: ارجاع صریح (درون‌متنی وبرون‌متنی)، ارجاع ضمنی (درون‌متنی و برون‌متنی) شامل: ارجاع ناهمسان، ارجاع همآیند، ارجاع از طریق تکرار، و ارجاع سلبی. ارجاع ناهمسان، نشان می‌دهد قوانین جزایی (قانون آیین دادرسی کیفری، قانون مجازات اسلامی و دیگر قوانین جزایی) با محوریت دال «جرم» شبکۀ دانشی را بازتاب می‌دهند. نتایج نشان می‌دهد هرگونه ارجاع، حتی ارجاع صریح، سطحی از پیچیدگی و دشواری ارتباطی را برای خواننده در درک معنای بندهای مواد قوانین ایجاد می‌کند. ارتباط مخاطب با متن قوانین، زمانی دشوارتر می‌شود که مواد و قوانین و متون به صورت رفت و برگشتی به یکدیگر ارجاع می‌دهند.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Semantic Analysis and Classification of Conceptual Metaphors in Persian Compound Verbs: A Study in the Framework of Cognitive Linguistics تحلیل و طبقه‌بندی معنی‌شناختی استعاره‌های مفهومی در افعال مرکب فارسی: مطالعه‌ای در چارچوب زبان‌شناسی شناختی 361 407 7452 10.48311/LRR.15.4.361 FA فاطمه صادقیار دانش آموختۀ کارشناسی ارشد زبان‌شناسی، گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه یاسوج، یاسوج، ایران. رضا رضایی استادیار زبان‌شناسی گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه یاسوج، یاسوج، ایران مژگان هوشمند استادیار زبان‌شناسی گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی ، دانشگاه یاسوج،، یاسوج، ایران 0000-0002-0250-3870 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The present study attempts to analyze and classify different types of conceptual metaphors and their method of conceptualization among Persian compound verbs based on cognitive semantics approach in metaphor analysis. The research method is descriptive-analytical and corpus-driven. Data collection was done through Sokhan's 8-volume dictionary as well as Persian language database. The research data consists of more than 1000 Persian compound verbs in the form of 20 common Persian language combinations, for each of which 50 current Persian language combinations were examined and analyzed. In fact, the objective of the authors is to analyze the types of conceptual metaphors and their frequency as well as to show their conceptualization among Persian compound verbs .The main objective of the current research is to answer the following questions: 1. How is metaphorical conceptualization formed in Persian compound verbs? 2. Which of the common conceptual metaphors has a higher frequency of occurrence? The results showed that in this corpus there are five domains of source, object, container, human being and material, which all belong to ontological metaphors are with a big difference (especially in comparison with the first two domains) the most frequent source domains in this corpus of Persian. 1. Introduction Fundamental studies and research in the field of cognitive linguistics began in the 1970s, and from the 1980s, it became increasingly important, and today it has become one of the leading schools of linguistics, more important in the West, particularly in Europe. Cognitive linguistics is rooted in the emerging linguistic and cognitive sciences of the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the examination of categorization in the human mind and Gestalt psychology, and is an approach to the study of language based on our experiences of the world, our way of seeing things, understanding and our way of conceptualizing. Cognitive linguists do not view language as a system distinct from other mental faculties. In other words, they do not accept the realm of the spirit. In cognitive linguistics, it is assumed that language is a mental faculty outside the domain and dependent on other mental faculties. Cognitive linguists attempt to describe the system and role of language. They examine the relationship between human language, its mind, and its social and physical experiences. Considering the fecundity of the composition process in the Persian language and the subsequent formation of compound verbs, which have a high frequency of occurrence in the Persian language, and since there has been no research on this approach around these verbs, it is necessary to research this subject. In this regard, the objectives of future research are: a) metaphorical ways of conceptualizing them based on concepts such as concept mapping, field of origin and destination; b) examine, analyze, and categorize all kinds of conceptual metaphors among Persian compound verbs. The current research is descriptive-analytical. The collection of the required data is done via the 8-volume Sokhon dictionary and the Persian language database. The research body includes 1000 Persian compound verbs, which are analyzed in the form of 20 common combinations of the Persian language and 50 current combinations for each, and various metaphors are extracted and represented based on the stages of the theoretical framework. In the present study, the authors attempted to answer these questions: 1. How is metaphorical conceptualization formed in Persian compound verbs? 2. Which of the common conceptual metaphors has the highest frequency of occurrence? The results showed that in this corpus, the five original domains of object, container, human, living being, and matter, which all belong to ontological metaphors, are by far ( especially the first two domains) the most frequent original domains in this Persian language corpus. 2. Review of Literature Until now, a lot of research has been carried out on compound verbs from the point of view of their syntactic and semantic construction in Persian language. The traces of this research can be followed both within the framework of traditional grammar and in the approaches proposed in modern linguistics in terms of semantics and grammar. On the other hand, the question of conceptual metaphors in the context of semantics, raised for the first time by Likoff and Johnson (1980), has also been the subject of numerous research. Therefore, in this section, the authors have reviewed work in the two areas of compound verbs and conceptual metaphors that have the most affinity with the present research. A review of other research is beyond the scope of this discussion and is fundamentally irrelevant to the topic under discussion. On the other hand, the authors have reviewed these studies in a logical and timely manner and in a categorized and separated manner to show the differences and commonalities of each of them with the current research to reveal the innovative aspects of the research. 2.1. Compound Verbs from the Point of View of Traditional and Modern Grammar By dividing verbs into two categories, simple and non-simple, compound verbs should be considered non-simple verbs made up of different components. The constituent elements of the compound verb together play the role of a verb and are stored together as a lexical unit in the vocabulary of speakers of the language. Compound verbs constitute the most frequent grammatical elements in the Persian language and have a controversial status in terms of syntactic and semantic characteristics. Modern research on the compound verb has mainly focused on the two concepts of composition and conjunction as two main elements in the formation of this category of verbs. 2.2. Noun Conjugation “It is a process that combines the [explicit] object with the verb, and the result of the combination, which is a word, plays the role of the proposition of the sentence. Incorporation as defined is a "syntactic" process, and although this process is generally thought to be common in Native American languages, a fair analysis of these cases reveals that most of these languages lack such a process” (Kroeber, 1909, pp. 541-544). On the other hand, eminent linguists like Sapir consider the formation of compound verbs to be both lexical and syntactic. Therefore, according to Kroeber's (1909) assertion that the existence of the noun incorporation process is improbable, Sapir's article is in fact a "refutation of this assertion." According to Sapir, Kroeber's definition of the assimilation process considers this process on the one hand as a lexical construction and on the other hand as a syntactic construction. It is a process of lexical construction, because two independent structures (one a noun and the other a verb) “are linked together and form a lexical unit, and it is syntactic because the noun linked to a verb must be the (explicit) object of this verb” (Sapir, 1911, pp. 250-257). 2.3. A Brief Review of Studies on Conceptual Metaphors within the Framework of Cognitive Semantics Since cognitive linguists have discussed the importance of metaphor in language, mind, and thought, “the main idea is that metaphors are based on our embodied experience and then provide a context for analyzing metaphors in a simultaneous framework” (Imre, 2010, pp.17-81). In the cognitive approach to meaning, metaphor is considered “one of the inseparable characteristics of the mind, which is realized through a concrete concept in order to better understand mental concepts” (Grady, 2007, p. 189). In conceptual metaphor theory, our thinking has a metaphorical structure, just like language. Conceptual metaphors are examined in the layers of the mind and not all of them find linguistic representation, but are present in culture, art, customs and symbols, because the conceptual system of the mind is metaphorical in a significant measure. Metaphor is the use of one concept to understand another concept or the application of an element from one realm of experience to another. Therefore, based on the proposed similarities, it transfers the meaning of one concept to another. However, metaphor is about words and not concepts. But the place of metaphor is in concepts, not in words. 3. Theoretical Framework In cognitive semantics, conceptual metaphors are a process that connects two different ideas. These two thoughts are one in the conceptual field of the origin and the other in the conceptual field of the destination. The concepts of the source domain are more objective than the concepts of the destination domain and are used to conceptualize the destination domain. Therefore, conceptual metaphor is a process of understanding and understanding, through which understanding as well as conceptualization of abstractions are possible. The systematic correspondences that connect the source domain and the destination domain are called mappings, and the formulas that are extracted based on these correspondences are called mappings (Afarashi, 2011, 2017; Grady, 2007; Talmy, 2000). According to Lakoff and Johnson, the essence of metaphor is the understanding and experience of one type of thing in terms of another type. We act based on the way we imagine things (Likoff & Johnson, 1980). Therefore, the nature of metaphor can be briefly described as follows: 1. Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we understand mental concepts and perform mental reasoning. 2. Many subjects, from the most obscure to the most obvious scientific theories, can only be understood through metaphor. 3. Although most of our conceptual system is metaphorical, a significant part of it is non-metaphorical. Metaphorical understanding is based on non-metaphorical understanding. 3.1 Proposed principles to study the conceptual metaphors 3-1-1conceptuality principle 3-1-2 Ubiquity Principle 3-1-3unidirectionality and necessity principle 3-1-4Invariance principle 3-1-5Experimental motivation principle 3-2 Different types of cognitive metaphors 3-2-1 : Structural 3-2-2: orientational 3-2-2: ontological 4. Metaphorical language is a surface reflection of conceptual metaphor. 5. Metaphor is primarily conceptual, not linguistic. 4. Research Methodology The present research is descriptive-analytical and corpus-oriented, and the authors started their work without presupposition of the existence of various nomenclature and source domains in the class of existing metaphors as well as in the whole corpus, and in this way, they have not chosen a specific domain of metaphors. Collecting data (compound verbs) and analyzing their meaning through the 8-volume dictionary of words and sample sentences extracted from the Persian language database. In this research, more than 1000 current combinations and nearly 1500 sentences along with their analysis and metaphorical classification have been used. What is the basis of the analysis of compound verbs in the present research is the model presented by Dabir Moghaddam (2004) in the article "Compound Verbs in the Persian Language". Fifty combinations were examined for each collaboration and various metaphors were extracted and represented based on the stages of the theoretical framework. 5. Data Analysis 5.1. Ontological Conceptual Metaphors Among the 1500 cases of ontological metaphors in the form of 580 noun mappings, the highest number was assigned to noun mapping (mental states/emotions are objects). The ten most frequent name mappings in the ontological class are as follows. Table 1 and Figure 1 show that in the category of ontological metaphors, the targeted areas have the highest frequency of occurrence, or in simpler terms, what the abstract concepts expressed through conceptual metaphors in the Persian language are. The corpus findings also showed that the most frequent domain of origin in the category of ontological metaphors used to explain abstract concepts are "objects" with 684 occurrences in the corpus, and the origin domains of "container" with 350 occurrences, "man" with 127 occurrences, "Animals" with 101 occurrences, "Substance" with 79 occurrences and "Movement" with 74 occurrences are in the next ranks respectively. 5.2. Structural Conceptual Metaphors We call structural metaphor in which one concept is expressed in the form of another concept; such as: “time is gold”, “work is eternal capital”, and “the world is a caravan”. Among the 450 structural conceptual metaphors found in the form of 155 noun mappings, the most frequent noun mapping was "goals/desires are destinations" with 20 occurrences, and the noun mappings were "life is a journey" and “to understand is to see” with 19 repetitions in the following rows. Structural findings revealed that in the class of structural metaphors, the abstract concepts of "goals/desires", "life", "time" and concepts related to "mind [understanding, reasoning, thinking, paying attention and..." have the highest frequency of occurrence. Among the concepts of the destination domain, the objective concepts of "travel", "building", "seeing", "food" and "source" were among the most widely used concepts of the origin domain to express abstract concepts in the body under study. As seen, the concept of "travel" is the most widely used objective concept to construct abstract concepts. In Table 3, to show the diversity of this metaphor, we present the examples found in the body that is constructed using the concept of "travel", along with the concepts of destination and route, which are part of the overall concept of travel. After examining the sample body, among 125 cases of directional metaphors in the form of 9 types of noun mapping, the domain of origin "up and down" had the highest frequency of occurrence with a significant difference compared to other types. The frequency of other types of source domains in the category of directional metaphors can be seen in Table 4. 6. Conclusion and Discussion In this research, an attempt has been made to answer the research questions, to determine how to represent the types of conceptual metaphors in a corpus of compound verbs of the Persian language, and to provide statistical analyses based on these data. Since the creation of this theory, the question has been raised as to which areas of common origin are used to understand which of the most common abstract concepts? The answer to this question is undoubtedly possible through physical studies. Studies that are based on speculation, linguistic sham, or the investigation of the most common areas of origin and destination in the articles related to conceptual metaphors and related examples, will not give a correct and accurate answer to this question. Therefore, a sample corpus from the Persian language was referred to to answer these questions in the present research. In this structure, the first five domains of origin from the following domains, which are all from the category of ontological metaphors, were by a large margin (especially the first two domains) the most frequent domains of origin in this structure from the Persian language and among compound verbs and their conceptualization methods: 1. object; 2. container; 3. Man; 4. Animate; 5. Material; 6. Travel; 7. Motion; 8. Location; 9. food; 11. Physical experiences; 12. Animals; 13. Body parts; 14. Force; 15. Light and darkness; 16. Building. Since the concepts related to mental states and emotions are one of the most widely used target domains in language, and on the other hand, the object origin domain is one of the most commonly used domains in the category of ontological metaphors, it is expected that the metaphorical mapping (mental states/emotions are objects), the most frequent mapping in the classification of conceptual metaphors, is among compound verbs in Persian language. Therefore, the metaphorical conceptualization of compound verbs is based on noun mappings, which is described earlier. Based on the corpus-oriented analysis and the obtained results, as stated, in the class of ontological conceptual metaphors, the most frequent metaphorical mapping, among 1500 ontological metaphors in the form of 580 noun mappings, the largest number was dedicated to mental states/emotions (151 cases). Since the three domains object, container, and human are among the most used domains for understanding abstract concepts of language, the object domain is expected to have the highest frequency in the formation of metaphorical mappings. Based on the analysis of the body orbit and the results obtained, as shown, in the class of ontological conceptual metaphors, the most frequently used original domain to explain abstract concepts is that of "objects" with 684 occurrences, and the original domains are the "containers". with 350, "man" with 127, "living beings" with 101, "substance" with 79, and "movement" with 74 occurrences are found in the following ranks respectively. Since the concept of time is one of the most commonly used abstract concepts to understand it in language, structural conceptual metaphors are used, especially conceptualization in the speech domain, so it is expected that the nominal mapping (the time something is in motion) is the most frequent metaphorical mapping in the class of structural metaphors. Based on the body orbit analysis and the results obtained, as shown, in the category of structural conceptual metaphors, the most frequent noun mappings were found among 393 structural metaphors occurring in 20 cases and the metaphors “ “goals/desires are destinations” were found in the form of 178 name mappings. A concept (life is a journey) and (understanding is seeing) appeared in the next row with 19 repetitions. Considering the wide application and diversity of conceptual metaphors in everyday language, which are constructed using the most frequent origin domain in the travel origin domain class "travel", we expect that the conceptual domain of conceptual metaphors is structural. Based on the analysis of the body orbit and the results obtained, as shown, in the class of structural conceptual metaphors of the original field, "journey" is the most widely used objective concept for constructing abstract concepts. It appears that within the category of directional conceptual metaphors, noun mapping (higher is lower) has the highest frequency of occurrence. Based on the analysis of the body orbit and the results obtained, as shown, in the class of directional conceptual metaphors, among 102 cases of directional metaphors in the form of 9 types of nominal mapping, nominal mapping (plus c 'is high, less is low) with a significant difference compared to other types. It had the highest frequency of occurrence. Based on the corpus-oriented analysis and the results obtained, as shown in Table 4, in the category of directional conceptual metaphors, the most frequently used original domain to explain abstract concepts was “up and down” with 66 repetitions in the corpus. It has been predicted that the original five domains 1. Man (ontological), 2. Container (ontological), 3. Object (ontological), 4. Journey (structural), 5. Force (structural) are among the domains most widely used of origin in the entire examination of the case. According to the corpus results, the following five original domains, all of which belong to the category of ontological metaphors, were by far (especially the first two domains) the most frequent original domains in this Persian language corpus: 1. Object (684 items, 41 percent); 2. Container (350 items, 20 percent); 3. Humans (127 cases, 7 percent); 4. Alive (101 cases, 6 percent); 5. Female (79 cases, 4 percent). After them, the most commonly used original fields in this structure were: 6. Travel (71 cases, 5 percent); 7. Movement, 59 cases, 4%); 8. Location (50 cases, 3 percent); 9. building (43 cases, 3 percent); 10. Food (22 cases, 2 percent); 11. Physical experiments (18 cases, 1 percent); 12. Animals (17 cases, 1 percent); 13. Body parts (17 cases, 1 percent); 14. Force (15 cases, 1 percent); 15. Light and darkness (14 cases, 1 percent). Overall, in this research, an effort has been made to provide a preliminary framework for the corpus-oriented study of conceptual metaphors in the Persian language. Undoubtedly, this research can be a starting point for a systematic and structured study of conceptual metaphors as well as how to represent and conceptualize them among the compound verbs of the Persian language پژوهش حاضر می‌کوشد تا با اتکا بر ارکان معنی‌شناسی شناختی در تحلیل استعاره به تحلیل و طبقه‌بندی انواع استعاره‌های مفهومی و همچنین شیوۀ مفهوم‌سازی آن‌ها در میان افعال مرکب فارسی بپردازد. روش‌تحقیق‌ توصیفی ـ تحلیلی ‌است. جمع‌آوری داده‌ها از طریق فرهنگ 8 جلدی سخن و همچنین پایگاه دادگان زبان فارسی صورت گرفته است. داده‌های پژوهش بالغ بر 1000 فعل مرکب فارسی است که در قالب 20 همکرد رایج زبان فارسی که به ازای هر کدام 50 ترکیب فعلی از زبان فارسی مورد بررسی و تحلیل قرار گرفته است. درواقع هدف نگارندگان این است تا انواع استعاره‌های مفهومی و بسامد آن‌ها و همچنین شیوۀ مفهوم‌سازی آن‌ها را در زبان فارسی تحلیل کنند. هدف اصلی جستار پیش رو پاسخ‌گویی به پرسش‌های زیر است: 1. مفهوم‌سازی استعاری در افعال مرکب زبان فارسی چگونه شکل می‌گیرد؟ 2. از میان استعاره‌های مفهومی رایج کدام یک دارای بسامد وقوع بیشتری است؟ نتایج نشان دادند که در این پیکره پنج حوزۀ مبدأ شیء، ظرف، انسان، جاندار و ماده که همگی متعلق به استعاره‌های هستی‌شناختی هستند با اختلاف زیادی (به‌ویژه دو حوزۀ اول) پربسامدترین حوزه‌های مبدأ در این پیکره از زبان فارسی هستند.

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دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 The World of Colors in French and Persian Proverbs and Expressions رنگ‌ها از دیدگاه بینافرهنگی در امثال و تعبیرات فارسی و فرانسوی 409 441 7453 10.48311/LRR.15.4.409 FA ناهید جلیلی مرند استاد، گروه فرانسه، دانشکده ادبیات، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران 0000-0002-1641-5548 شراره چاوشیان دانشیار، گروه فرانسه، دانشکده ادبیات، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران 0000-0003-4605-8278 Journal Article 1970 01 01 The present article, realized by using analytical method and library research, has discussed the different roles of colors in French and Persian terms. On the one hand, these terms have been studied in the field of linguistics, especially in terms of vocabulary and syntactic structure, and on the other hand, their hidden and obvious symbols have been analyzed by the intercultural point of view. In order to be aware of the commonality and differentiation of the colors’ role in the terms of both French and Persian languages and to create order and coherence in the text of the article, the authors have categorized them into six groups, according to their own initiative: conceptual metaphor, terms structured by noun and adjective, metonymy, political domain, abstract concepts and terms based on infinitive. It is noteworthy that by referring to specialized books and dictionaries, the body of research consisting of qualified terms for each group has been conceived and for each of them, equivalent has been chosen in the target language. In addition to examining each term, the authors of the article have provided an analytical study of the examples, citing the views of linguists. Also, by referring to the book Le Proverbe : Vers une définition linguistique (2012) by Sonia Gomez-Jordana Ferari, the syntactic structure of the examples of the research body has been examined.. Introduction The present article analyzes the different roles of colors in French and Persian terms and examines them with a comparative approach in this field of linguistics. In fact, the authors of the article, in order to be aware of the commonalities and differences between the desired roles in the terms with the names of colors in two languages, have categorized them into six groups on their own initiative: conceptual metaphor, short, permissible expressions, politics, concepts abstract and terminology with verb source structure. This work has given a special order and coherence to the research text. It is noteworthy that by referring to specialized books and cultures, examples have been found for each group and equivalents have been found for each of them in the target language. In addition to examining each term, the authors have provided analytical explanations based on the points of view of linguists and based on their knowledge and experiences. Also, the syntactic structure of each group has been studied by referring to the book Proverbs: Towards a Definition Based on Linguistics (2012) by Sonia Gomez-Jordana Ferrari. In this research, with an analytical method, the commonalities of the color symbol in both languages are emphasized, but sometimes in Persian or French equivalent, another word is used instead of color and sometimes the names of colors are due to cultural differences between these two different languages. The proverbs and interpretations of each language have been created in various contexts, contain different topics, and express interesting and instructive content because they have been and will be the result of the experiences of many generations. Humans (gender and body parts), animals, plants, nature, numbers, colors, specific names, geographical areas, etc. are the keywords of the terms and proverbs. These themes play an important role in creating the meaning of the terms: sometimes they have an implicit meaning and sometimes an explicit meaning, sometimes they express a specific culture or religion, and sometimes they appear symbolically. Whatever role they play in the term, the reader or listener must be familiar with the meaning in order to understand its meaning, otherwise, it will be difficult or impossible for the audience to understand the text or speech. Colors have a prominent presence in human daily life and play important roles in various fields: they represent socio-political tendencies, they can represent the personality of each of us, and express our feelings in the situation. Be different mentally and physically. The importance of colors is such that they have even taken up a significant part of the proverbs and expressions of the living languages of the world. Given their connection to this field of language and linguistics, we decided to conduct research in this field and find a convincing answer to our question: the symbolic roles of colors used in proverbs and interpretations in both languages Persian and French culture are the same or different? Methodology The research method is based on the principle that by first referring to specialized cultures and books in this field, a number of terms and proverbs in which the names of colors are used as a body of work have been selected. Then, in a comparative approach, we discuss the commonalities and differences between the two languages. This is a comparative analytical study in the field of lexical, symbolic, and cultural bilingualism with reference to the views of linguists and philosophers in both languages. In this research, we got acquainted with the world of colors in a wide field of language and linguistics, and according to their diversity and in order to organize the text of the article, these proverbs and colorful interpretations according to their initiative in groups. We included a variety of colors, including conceptual metaphors, short, permissible phrases, the realm of politics, abstract concepts, and terms with verb endings. In addition to analyzing the symbolic role of colors used in the terms of each group, by considering the commonalities and differentiating them in the two languages that is the initial question of our research, citing Gomez-Jordana's classification into its syntactic structure. Results In fact, except for the terms with the verb structure in the conceptual metaphorical group, which are usually used with the verb "being and becoming" in Persian and "être et devenir" in France, and the last group as terms with the verb structure, our classification group did not match with what Gomez-Jordana introduced. In terms of the symbolism of colors in the conceptual metaphors of the two languages, "similar and similar" is usually common, but in most cases "similar to" is not the same in Persian and French because the cultural distance between the two languages in some cases causes this difference. For example, in Persian, the color of the face turns yellow like "yellow wood", while "similar to" in French is "fruit, lemon and a kind of candle made of animal tallow". In French short phrases, white, blue, and yellow are used to express "waking night, rage, intense anger, false laughter, family originality, etc.", while this type of Persian phrase is less colorful. They are combined, but sometimes they have a color symbol, such as "horror film" which is presented in black in France or "immaturity of a girl" which in French is marked with green meaning immaturity, with some exceptions. It exists in Persian, such as "yellow fever, green hand" and so on. Despite the lexical differences in the short phrases of the two languages in this category, in the Persian equivalents, one can easily understand the emotions that the colors used in the French phrases evoke. In the allowed section, French terms are usually the same color as Persian equivalents, and these colors evoke the socio-cultural burden of both languages. It goes without saying that in some cases, in Persian, instead of using "white clothes, blue clothes" and other cases, we are content with the names of jobs, but at the same time, their uniforms are also imprinted in our minds. In politics, too, most colors are internationally symbolic and can be used under the same name in any language. In abstract concepts, we believe that colors play a symbolic role, for example, being negative and pessimistic, in despair and hope evokes a blackness in our minds, and vice versa, optimism, love of life, and enjoying its various aspects justify the presence of pink in the terms because it expresses tenderness, beauty, calmness and cheerfulness. Regarding color, Merleau-Ponty quotes the French painter Cézanne as saying that "color is the space where the human brain and the outside world meet" (Merleau-Ponty, p. 66). This applies to the connection of colors with all the parts studied in this article, because the human brain connects the two issues according to the conditions of time and place in which the terms in question originated. پژوهش حاضر که با روشی تحلیلی ـ کتابخانه‌ای انجام شده به تحلیل نقش‌های مختلف رنگ‌ها در اصطلاحات فرانسه و فارسی پرداخته است. از یک سو، این اصطلاحات در زمینۀ زبان‌شناسی خصوصاً از لحاظ واژگان و ساختار نحوی، و از سوی دیگر نمادهای پنهان و آشکار آن‌ها از دیدگاه بینافرهنگی مورد بررسی قرار گرفته‌اند. درواقع، نویسندگان جهت آگاهی از اشتراک و افتراق نقش رنگ‌ها در اصطلاحات مورد نظر دو زبان و ایجاد نظم و انسجام در متن مقاله، آن‌ها را به ابتکار خود در شش گروه بدین ترتیب طبقه‌بندی کرده‌اند: استعارۀ مفهومی، اصطلاحات با ساختار صفت و موصوف، مجاز، عرصۀ سیاست، مفاهیم انتزاعی و اصطلاحات با ساختار مصدر فعل. گفتنی است که با مراجعه به کتاب‌ها و فرهنگ‌های تخصصی، پیکرۀ پژوهش متشکل از اصطلاحات واجد شرایط برای هر گروه جمع‌آوری و برای هر یک از آن‌ها معادل‌یابی در زبان مقصد انجام گرفته است. علاوه بر بررسی هر اصطلاح، مولفان مقاله با استناد به نظرهای زبان‌شناسان، مطالعۀ تحلیلی از مثال‌ها ارائه داده‌اند. همچنین، با مراجعه به کتاب ضرب‌المثل: به سوی یک تعریف براساس زبان‌شناسی (2012) اثر سونیا گومز ـ ژوردانا فراری ساختار نحوی مثال‌های پیکرۀ پژوهش مورد بررسی قرار گرفته است.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7453_ae78510109d46b0a6eef9820a4ca95d6.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 Contrastive Analysis of "NAMING" & "MOHR ZADAN" Rituals in Kurdish based on Gender مقایسه جنسیتی مراسم کردی «مهر زدن» و «نام گذاری» مرتبط با تولد در چارچوب نظریه آمیختگی مفهومی 443 472 7454 10.48311/LRR.15.4.443 FA الهام میزبان دانشجوی دکتری، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران. علی ایزانلو استادیار، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران. Journal Article 1970 01 01 The current study aimed to provide a "contrastive analysis" of rituals related to 'Mohr Zadan' and 'naming' in Kurdish based on gender factors. Deep interview method applied to gathering data of an adult educated native woman. Based on the collected data on this step, a new non-structured group interview was designed and carried on in a small group of 5 non-educated native speakers aged 60 to 70. Relying on the conceptual blending theory, the present study analyses all recorded narrations. The results suggest that Kurdish culture uses different conceptual inputs- or more significantly- selects different mappings of the same input to regenerate new conceptual spaces to represent the cultural values of two genders. In other words, in Kurdy, cultural gender values play a significant role in conceptual blending. 1. Introduction The various rituals and ceremonies that take place in every culture and subculture are significant examples of how people, by engaging in symbolic behaviours, create a new or collective concept. Rituala and concept have meaning not only in the culture, but also has the power to influence and change a person's life. Based on this, the study of rituals not as mere symbolic ceremonies, but as meaning-creating models that are effective in the psychological and cognitive spheres of people is the subject of the upcoming research. Therefore with a comparative study of the rituals related to birth in the Kurdish culture of Sorani Sanandaj based on both genders, boys and girls, we have sought answers to the following questions Research Question(s) With regard to a common concept such as the birth-giving, what inputs are used in the Kurdish culture under study to create meaning for each gender? What mappings were made to create a generic and blended space of rituals related to the birth-giving in the Surani Kurdish culture of Sanandaj for each gender, and what methods did this culture use to create a blended space? the conceptual blended space around the ritual of the birth-giving in the studied Kurdish culture for girls and boys with emphasis on what choices among input elements is formed? 2. Literature Review Conceptual blending theory (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002) as the theoretical framework of this research, has been adopted in various filed and different topics from news narrating analyses (van Krieken and Sanders: 2018); and headlines’ implicatures (Barczewska: 2017); to internet discourse study (Augustyn and Prażmo: 2020) or political analyses like (Berberović and Delibegović Džanić: 2020). In Iran also this frame work was utilized in many studies like as the study of Conceptual Blending of War, Hunting and Love in Saadi’s Ghazals (Asqar Nejhad & Fahgih malek marzban: 2017) or cognitive narratology and applying the Conceptual Blending Theory to Persian Folk Tales (Barekat, Rowshan, Mohammad Ebrahimi, Ardebili: 2012); 3. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework of this research is conceptual blending theory (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002), which identifies two or more different mental spaces as inputs and, by examining the mappings between aspects of common elements selected from each of the two, analyses the way in which the human mind perceives, deals with, re-understands or re-identifies pre-existing perceptions, or creates new applications from previous inputs. 4. Methodology In order to answer the questions of this research, the general structure of the research is first designed within the framework of a comparative study and based on the qualitative analysis model. Based on this, the semi-structured interview method was considered and the desired questions were given to an educated female speaker whose mother tongue is Sorani Kurdish. The interviewee was asked to evaluate the interview questions in terms of clarity, relevance and comprehensibility by 'thinking aloud'. After designing and modifying the interview questions based on the suggestions made by the spokesperson, various rituals related to the birth-giving were collected from a middle-aged female spokesperson by using the in-depth individual interview method. Then, in order to obtain more information, five illiterate men and women, aged between 50 and 70, whose mother tongue was Sorani Kurdish and who conducted their daily conversations in this language, were interviewed using the "targeted group interview" method. their narration of the desired ritual was recorded and continued until saturation point. Finally, the interviews were transcribed in order to extract and analyse the details related to the ritual of the birth-giving rituals. It is worth mentioning that the information was collected in the form of an audio recording with the knowledge and consent of all the interviewees. At the same time, some important classifications were also recorded in writing during the interview and re-evaluated by the interviewees in order to check the accuracy of the recording or its classification. By transcribing and analysing the data extracted from the interviews, the concepts related to the ritual of the birth-givinf were analysed as follows. 5. Results The analysis of different parts of the rituals related to the birth-giving in the Surani Kurdish culture of Sanandaj, in response to the first question of the research, data shows that this culture creates different meanings in same rituals by choosing two different inputs belonging to the same class to form a conceptual blended space. For example, choosing two different foods such as 'walnuts' or 'crystallised sugar' is effective both in the process of creating the meaning of the blended space and in the purpose and intention behind the desired ceremony and ritual. On the other hand, despite the use of this culture from similar inputs such as "Sureme", "Blessed Object", "Angels" and "Mohr", sometimes the selection and representation of different components of the concepts leads to the creation of a completely different meaning in the blended space. Data analysis in response to the second question of the research shows that the Sorani Kurdish culture of Sanandaj, by selecting different components of input concepts and creating selective mappings from a set of conceptual blended space, selects concepts that fit the cultural frame of the child's gender. In this sense, the selective projection of input elements in the ritual of "Mohr Zadan" for baby girls is done in line with concepts such as "being beautiful, patient, pleasant and being liked"; while in the case of a baby boy, this process is done by selecting elements such as "being stubborn and resistant, being an entrepreneur and being a thinker and supporter". Finally, in answer to the third question of the research, it seems that rituals in the Surani Kurdish culture of Sanandaj, take account the conceptual frames that govern the cultural definitions of "good woman" and "good man" and choose different inputs or choose and represent different aspects of the same input to create new meanings through this passage. Based on this, the determining factor of the blended space and conceptual mappings in these rituals is the "gender cultural frame" that will be effective in all the processes of "mapping", "choosing the vital relationship" and "creating meaning". پژوهش حاضر مطالعۀ مقایسه‌ای است دربارۀ آیین‌های مرتبط با تولد و نام‌گذاری در فرهنگ کردستان شهرستان سنندج که با گویش سورانی صحبت می‌کنند. این پژوهش با توجه به عامل جنسیت، به تحلیل منتخبی از این آیین‌ها در چارچوب نظریۀ آمیختگی مفهومی پرداخته است. بر این اساس، با شیوۀ مصاحبۀ عمیق در دسترس از یک سخنگوی زن میان‌سال تحصیل‌کردۀ کردزبان ، آیین‌های مختلف مربوط به حوزۀ مفهومی تولد نوزاد جمع‌آوری شده و سپس جهت کسب اطلاعات بیشتر، با روش «مصاحبۀ هدفمند گروهی»، تعداد پنج نفر از سخنگویان زن و مرد بی‌سواد بین 50 تا 70 سال که زبان مادری آن‌ها کردی سورانی بوده و مکالمات روزمرۀ خود را به این زبان انجام می‌دهند، مورد مصاحبه قرار گرفته و روایت آن‌ها از آیین مورد نظر ضبط شده است. تحلیل آیین‌های مستخرج از متن مصاحبه‌ها نشان‌دهندۀ آن است که فرهنگ کردی سورانی سنندج جهت خلق معناهای همسو با قالب فرهنگی جنسیتی یا از دروندادهای متفاوت جهت خلق معنا بهره می‌برد و یا در مواردی جالب توجه‌تر، با گزینش نگاشت‌های متفاوت از یک یا چند درونداد واحد، فضای آمیختۀ مفهومی تازه‌ای را در تطابق با قالب فرهنگی جنسیتی شامل «زن خوب= زیبا، صبور، همسر» در برابر «مرد خوب= قوی، کوشا، نان‌آور» شکل می‌دهد. بر این اساس، قالب‌های جنسیتی عامل مؤثر در فرایند معناسازی آیین‌های تولد و زایش فرهنگ کردی سورانی سنندج قلمداد می‌شوند.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7454_6c19e0a6da12dc02239312f151072ddd.pdf

دانشگاه تربیت مدرس جستارهای زبانی 2322-3081 15 4 2024 09 22 The Mediating Role of Language Motivational Self System in the Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Second Language Writing Anxiety in Student نقش واسطه‌ای سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان در رابطۀ بین باورهای معرفت‌شناختی و اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم در دانش‌آموزان متوسطۀ دوم 473 507 7455 10.48311/LRR.15.4.473 FA علیرضا همایونی استادیار گروه روان‌شناسی، واحد بندر گز، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، بندر گز، ایران. سیدجلال عبدالمنافی رکنی استادیار گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه گلستان، گرگان، ایران. 0000-0002-1031-8050 Journal Article 1970 01 01 This research investigated the mediating role of language motivational self system in the relationship between epistemological beliefs and second language writing anxiety in students. The research method was correlation type using structural equation modeling. The statistical population of this research was made up of all the students of the second secondary school, 203 students were randomly selected and answered to Papi's self-motivation system questionnaires (2010), Cheng's second language writing anxiety (2004) and the short form of Schumer's epistemological beliefs questionnaire (1999). The results showed that epistemological beliefs have a direct effect on second language writing anxiety and the motivational self system of language has a direct effect on second language writing anxiety. Also, epistemological beliefs have an indirect effect on second language writing anxiety through the motivational self system of language. The research model was also confirmed and the result showed that the variable measurement models have a good fit and 45% of the variance of language writing anxiety is explained by cognitive variables. Based on the findings of this research, it can be concluded that there is a direct and indirect causal relationship between the variables of epistemological beliefs, language motivational self system and second language writing anxiety, and the mediating role of language motivational self system in the relationship between epistemological beliefs and second language writing anxiety were confirmed. 1. Introduction Language is often seen as a key to gaining knowledge and empowerment. When learning a language, people can communicate on different levels and it allows them to understand and interpret the abstract concepts, feelings and thoughts of the people. Through learning a foreign language, a larger population is accessed, more knowledge is available, and the sharing of ideas becomes deeper and more diverse (Gollnick & Chin, 2009). Language leaning is a cognitive and social process and we learn it through interaction with others as well as conscious mental effort. This means that learners can play an active role in their learning through the use of learning strategies (Anugkakul, 2011). One of the important factors in learning a second language is anxiety. Anxiety can be an important variable that a language learner experiences while learning a foreign language. Anxiety is an integral part of human experience and nature. Anxiety is a vague feeling of uneasiness with apprehension that occurs in response to internal and external stimuli. Also, it may lead to cognitive, emotional, physical, and behavioral symptoms (Baghiani Moghadam et al., 2015). McIntyre and Gardner (1994) described L2 anxiety as "feelings of tension and apprehension especially in L2 contexts, including speaking, listening, and writing." When learning a foreign language, these anxieties can affect students' performance in academic environments (Farsian et al., 2014). Language writing anxiety is one of the most important variables that plays an important role in second language learning. Second language writing anxiety is defined as a relatively stable tendency of anxiety related to second language writing that includes a variety of dysfunctional thoughts, increasing physiological arousal, and maladaptive behaviors (Cheng, 2004). Studies have shown that students’ writing performance is related to anxiety. In the language anxiety literature, there are two variables of epistemological beliefs and the motivational self-system of the second language playing a decisive role. Learners' beliefs about language learning are also very important (Fujiwara, 2015). In the last three decades, researchers have studied beliefs about knowledge and their impact on learning. These so-called epistemological beliefs include a complex system of beliefs. They not only affect academic performance and information processing, but also they interact with constructs such as achievement motivation (Oschatz, 2015). Students’ epistemological beliefs affect the application of learning strategies and their ability to understand academic texts in English (Allahi, 2018). Another factor affecting language anxiety is the motivational self-system of the second language. The second language motivational self-system model by Dornyei (2005) with three aspects of the self as the language self, the language ideal self, and the language learning experience was developed based on previous models and empirical evidence from psychological studies. Intrinsic motivation and different types of writing anxiety indicate English as a foreign language learners' evaluative judgments from teacher and peer feedback (Tsao et al., 2017). Motivation and self-reported English competences/skills had strong negative and significant correlations with English writing anxiety levels (Akbarov & Aydoghan, 2018). Therefore, this research investigated the relationship between epistemological beliefs and second language writing anxiety, mediated by the second language motivational self-system among students. 2. Method The present research is an applied one. The data were collected cross-sectionally and analyzed descriptively, and correlational part was based on the method of structural equation modeling. The statistical population of this research consists of secondary school students of which 203 students were randomly selected as the sample. To collect data, Taguchi et al.,'s (2009) motivational self-system questionnaires, Schumer's (1990) epistemological beliefs, and Second Language Writing Anxiety, Cheng (2004) were used. For data analysis, descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and inferential statistics of structural regression modeling were done using SPSS 24 and Amos 23 software. 3. Findings The results show a significant correlation between the subscales of the language motivational self-system and epistemological beliefs with English writing anxiety. There was a significant negative relationship between the subscales of the motivational self-system of language and English language writing anxiety, and a significant positive relationship was observed between epistemological beliefs and English language writing anxiety. The paths of epistemological beliefs and motivational self-system of language also had a significant direct effect on English writing anxiety. Also, the indirect path of epistemological beliefs on English language writing anxiety was observed through the mediation of language motivational self-system, and in general, two variables had the predictive power (R2 = 0.45) of the English language writing anxiety variable, which was about %45. This endogenous variable can be explained by these variables. 4. Conclusion The aim of this research was to investigate the structural relationship between epistemological beliefs and second language writing anxiety with the mediation of language motivational self-system among students. The results showed that epistemological beliefs had a direct effect on second language writing anxiety and an indirect effect on second language writing anxiety through the mediation of language motivational self-system. The findings are consistent with the results obtained by Papi (2010), Kyung (2017), Sadeghi (2022), and Zare et al., (2019). Writing, especially for second language learners, is a laborious and demanding activity, and at the same time, it is a skill that they must master in order to perform well at higher levels (Daud et al., 2005). Writing tasks are usually required in any field of study. However, writing is a very difficult skill and second language learners are afraid of doing that (Gupta, 1998). The concept of success in writing is related to self-expression, flow of ideas, external expectations, high self-confidence, and enjoyment of writing in a second language (Basturkmen & Lewis, 2002). L2 writing anxiety can be defined as "the avoidance of writing and situations which potentially require some writing along with the potential to evaluate that writing" (Hassan, 2001). Epistemological beliefs in the field of internal factors increase anxiety by forming inappropriate cognitive dimensions. Participants’ beliefs about these dimensions of knowledge may prevent the emergence of more complex epistemological beliefs in the domain of English language learning. Second language curriculum should focus on developing the use of language learning skills and appropriate cognitive strategies (e.g., critical thinking) to determine the most accurate sources of vocabulary knowledge in specific communicative contexts (Ziegler, 2014). Dörnyei's (2009) language motivation system has been applied in various settings around the world to understand the motivation for learning languages. Some research studies have suggested that students should develop different forms of self-motivation at different organizational levels. In some language learners, the initial motivation to learn a language does not come from internal or external images and is more from a successful engagement with the actual process of language learning experience (Papi, 2010). Through recognizing and strengthening the variables of the ideal self, the ought to self, and learning experiences, the amount of individual effort in learning can be predicted (AttarSharqi & Akbari, 2018). Intrinsic motivation and different types of writing anxiety show English as foreign language learners' evaluative judgments from teacher and peer feedback (Tsao et al., 2017). Analysis of the causes of second language writing anxiety showed that language problems, insufficient writing practice, test anxiety, lack of knowledge, and low self-confidence in writing performance are the main sources of second language writing anxiety. Eckstein and Ferris (2018) recommend teaching second language writers to edit common patterns of errors and sensitizing students to the value of subtle and purposeful lexical variation in their writing. Teachers should look for more effective ways to reduce the anxiety that students feel when learning and writing English in order to support successful language learning experiences (Choi, 2013). اضطراب زبان یکی از موضوعات مهمی است که یادگیرندگان هنگام یادگیری یک زبان خارجی ممکن است سطوح مختلفی از آن را تجربه کنند. در بین مهارت‌های مختلف زبان، مهارت نوشتن با توجه به اهمیت آن می‌تواند اضطراب بیشتری ایجاد کنند و بر عملکرد زبان‌آموزان تأثیر زیادی داشته باشد. بنابراین این پژوهش نقش واسطه‌ای سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان در رابطۀ بین باورهای معرفت‌شناختی و اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم را در دانش‌آموزان متوسطۀ دوم مورد بررسی قرار داد. روش تحقیق از نوع هم‌بستگی با استفاده از مدل‌سازی معادلات ساختاری بود. جامعۀ آماری این پژوهش را تمام دانش‌آموزان دورۀ متوسطۀ دوم تشکیل دادند که تعداد 203 دانش‌آموز به روش نمونه‌گیری غیرتصادفی در دسترس انتخاب شدند و به پرسش‌نامه‌های سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان پاپی (2010)، اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم چنگ (2004) و فرم کوتاه باورهای معرفت‌شناختی شومر (1999) پاسخ دادند. نتایج نشان داد که باورهای معرفت‌شناختی بر اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم و سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان بر اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم اثر مستقیم دارند. همچنین، باورهای معرفت‌شناختی از راه سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان بر اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم اثر غیرمستقیم دارند. مدل پژوهش نیز تأیید شد و نتیجه نشان داد مدل‌های اندازه‌گیری متغیرها از برازش خوبی دارند و 45 درصد واریانس اضطراب نوشتن زبان توسط متغیرهای پزوهش تبیین می‌شوند. براساس یافته‌های این پژوهش می‌توان نتیجه گرفت که بین متغیرهای باورهای معرفت‌شناختی، سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان و اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم به صورت مستقیم و غیرمستقیم رابطۀ علّی وجود دارد و نقش واسطه‌ای سیستم خودهای انگیزشی زبان در رابطۀ بین باورهای معرفت‌شناختی و اضطراب نوشتن زبان دوم تأیید شد.

https://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article_7455_2e7638c6f7667569fe469fec28c7405b.pdf