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A Study of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies and Mental Vitality in Relation to Academic buoyancy Among French Language Students at Hakim Sabzevari University: A Comparative Analysis from the Perspective of French Language Professors at Iranian Universities
Fatemeh Bahrami, Azadeh Fesanghari, Ali Rashidi,
Volume 0, Issue 0 (2-2024)
Abstract
Learning French as a foreign language presents unique challenges that may sometimes reduce students' motivation and academic performance. This study aimed to examine the relationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies, mental vitality, and academic buoyancy among French language students. A mixed-method approach (quantitative and qualitative) was employed in two phases. In the quantitative phase, data were collected using standardized questionnaires on academic buoyancy, mental vitality, and cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The statistical population included all 61 French language students at Hakim Sabzevari University, who participated in the study through a census sampling method. In the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 French language professors from Iranian universities to explore their perspectives and experiences regarding academic buoyancy and its influencing factors. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods, while qualitative data were examined through inductive content analysis. The quantitative findings revealed that the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, along with mental vitality, positively influenced students' academic buoyancy. Furthermore, qualitative results indicated that various factors, including social variables, family, educational emotions, learner goal-setting, learning strategies, cognitive functions, communication skills, cognitive and emotional skills, academic behavioral motivators, educational content, teacher-related personal variables, teaching skills and techniques, and the teacher's motivational approach, significantly impact students' academic buoyancy.
 
EFL Learners’ Perceptions and Practices of Reflective Assessment and Its’ Impact on Their General English Achievements
Roya Vafaeimehr, Sasan Baleghizadeh,
Volume 11, Issue 3 (7-2020)
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate the role of practicing reflective assessment (RA) strategies in language classroom and to examine EFL learners’ perceptions regarding RA. In order to do so, the following research questions and hypotheses were answered:
Research questions:
  1. Does applying RA strategies impact EFL learners’ achievements in General English (GE) classes?
  2. Is there any statistically significant difference in post-test scores of EFL learners who practiced RA strategies and who did not?
  3. Is there any statistically significant difference in retention-test scores of EFL learners who practiced RA strategies and who did not?
  4. What are EFL learners’ perceptions regarding the application of RA strategies in language classroom?
 
Research hypotheses:
  1. Applying RA strategies does not impact EFL learners’ achievements in General English classes.
  2. There is not any statistically significant difference in post-test scores of EFL learners who practiced RA strategies and who did not.
  3. There is not any statistically significant difference in retention-test scores of EFL learners who practiced RA strategies and who did not.
This study followed a mixed-methods design and both quantitative and qualitative data were used. The participants of the quantitative phase were 90 Computer Engineering students at Shahid Beheshti University who took part in General English (GE) classes. Two classes were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Intermediate-level learners were selected based on their Oxford Placement Test’s scores. After pretest, in the experimental group, the students practiced Ellis's (2001) RA strategies, but in the control group, the normal course of class was followed. Five RA strategies (Ellis, 2001) were practiced in the experimental group. They were I Learned Statement, Talk about it (Think Aloud), Clear and unclear windows, The week in review, and Record keeping: After ten sessions, the posttest was administered and four weeks later, delayed posttest was administered. Considering the qualitative phase of the study, the participants were 45 computer engineering students (experimental group) and their perceptions regarding RA were extracted using questions and a questionnaire (Kourilenko, 2013). To do so, the participants were asked to complete a questionnaire and answer two interview questions regarding the application of RA and its impact on their English language achievements. After both quantitative and qualitative data collection, the data were analyzed. For quantitative data analysis, paired-samples t-test and independent-samples t-tests were used, and for qualitative data analysis, content analysis was run. The results revealed that the practice of RA strategies had a positive impact on EFL learners’ GE achievements (t (44) = -8.7, p<0.05). Furthermore, it was found that there were statistically significant differences between experimental and control groups’ scores in posttest (t (88) = 3.25, p< 0.05) and retention test (t (88) = 4.58, p< 0.05). According to the data, EFL learners, who practiced RA strategies, had higher scores in their post-test and retention-test compared to their control group counterparts. Besides, the analysis of the qualitative data showed that EFL learners had a positive approach to RA, and themes like increased collective morale, enhanced awareness of errors, and increased motivation to learn were the most frequent ones regarding positive impacts of RA and lack of time and knowledge, tediousness of over-practicing, and lack of students’ cooperation were found to be obstacles in practicing RA in the language classroom. The results of this study may have beneficial implications for EFL learners, teachers and material developers. EFL learners can apply different RA strategies in their learning process to increase their awareness of what they have learned and how they have learned them. EFL teachers should encourage their learners to practice RA strategies and provide them with appropriate feedback to help them improve their learning. Finally, EFL material developers can insert activities in the books and educational materials which trigger students’ reflection. Moreover, they can design activities which motivate learners to write reflective journals and record their scores in order to follow the way of their progress. Overall, this study revealed that practicing RA strategies are beneficial in language classroom and EFL learners have positive attitudes toward it. It is noteworthy to state that this is the first study conducted in Iran considering the implementation of RA and its effectiveness in the language classroom. It is hoped that it paves the way for further research in the realm of RA in Iran.
 
 
The study of difference between self-taught and non-self-taught learners in terms of the use of cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies
Leila Shobeiry,
Volume 14, Issue 2 (5-2023)
Abstract
Autonomy and self-learning are concepts that have regained value and meaning in modern methods of foreign language teaching. The purpose of this study is to investigate how language learners can be encouraged  to gain autonomy in learning and self-learning skills in a French language classroom. To provide a solution in this regard, we first need to answer the question, what is the basic difference between self-taught and non-self-taught language learners? Our hypothesis is that self-taught learners naturally have higher "knowledge-skills", "knowledge-learning skills" and higher life experience than others. In order to compare the abilities of self-taught and non-self-taught learners in applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies, we published a call and asked 35 learners who had learned French completely or partially on their own to answer two questionnaires about using cognitive and metacognitive strategies. These two questionnaires are taken from Politzer, McGroarty and Willing. At the same time, 35 people who had not been self-taught in any course of learning French were asked to answer the above two questionnaires. The results of this study, which was presented as a descriptive statistic, show that learners use both strategies they have higher abilities. As a result, it should be said that autonomy and all cognitive and metacognitive strategies, although they may exist naturally in all individuals, but their emergence from potential to actual in most cases is not spontaneous and requires educational support.
 
  1. Introduction
Terms such as independence, self-learning and self-management found a special place in the history of foreign language education in the 1970s. In the current era, language sciences give their place to communication and the theoretical models of communication skills act as a reference in defining new teaching and learning methods. The learning process is no longer considered an unknown thing; Concepts such as strategy or teaching and learning strategies have gained a new life and efforts are being made to understand and define the learning process beyond the concept of strategy.
The presence of media, Internet and virtual networks has undoubtedly caused the increasing access of people to foreign languages ​​and many obstacles to learning foreign languages ​​have disappeared. However, the new issue that is raised today despite the advancement of technology is the issue of self-learning, which unlike the past has taken a new approach and is addressed as an ability to learn. In other words, new educational methods seek to create a link between learning and the independence of the learner in learning. In communicative approach as well as in the action-oriented approach which is based on the constructivist learning theory and has a psychological approach as well as an interactive-social approach in language teaching, the role of language learner is a central and the language learner must take responsibility for his own learning. Meanwhile, the role of teacher has also undergone changes; In other words, the professor in the foreign language class is no longer omniscient and plays the role of a guide alongside the student. In this research, we intend to examine concepts such as independence in learning and the role of self-learning in modern educational approaches. Our purpose of conducting this research is to answer the question of how to help the learners to have independence in learning and to have self-learning skills in the French language teaching class. To provide a solution in this field, we first need to answer the question, what is the difference between self-directed and non-self-directed language learners? Our hypothesis in this research is that autonomous learners naturally have higher interpersonal skills, learning skills and lived experience than others. These skills are one of the most obvious manifestations of a language learner's identity, which are directly linked to their personality factors.
  1. Literature Review
Familiarity with the concept of independence in language learning is of particular importance from the perspective of applied linguists and foreign language education specialists. According to Holec (1991), the autonomy of the learner is based on the knowledge he creates according to his perception of the world. In other words, an independent language learner is a person who actively takes responsibility for his own management, conceptualization and evaluation in the learning process.
The concept of independence or autonomy appeared in education in the 1990s and led to the emergence of a new method and a new reading in the curricula and educational goals of educational institutions. Many educational theories and approaches, such as the communicative and action-oriented approach, also attribute this concept to themselves because of its importance and value in education. In fact, it can be said that independent learning is a concept that appears mostly in foreign languages ​​in a modern way. But the definition of this concept has been discussed by several linguists such as Holec (1981). Holec asserts that autonomous learning is "the ability to take ownership of one's own learning." On the other hand, according to Little (1991), "learner independence" includes the ability to separate, have critical thinking, and the ability to make independent decisions and actions in the learner.
On the other hand, Nunan (1997) defines autonomy as a model with five levels, which includes learner performance, sensitivity or awareness towards learning, participation, intervention, creation and excellence. As we can see, there are different concepts of independence in language learning.
Among the studies that have been done so far in Iran about learning strategies, the independence of language learners and its relationship with the level of use of learning strategies, we can refer to the article “Investigation of the level of use of cognitive strategies and its relationship with the independence of language students” written by Rahmatian and Marzieh Zohrevandi (2011, pp. 173-190). In this research, the rate of use of cognitive strategies among students and the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence of French language students have been investigated. In order to measure the amount of use of cognitive strategies and to better understand the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence, the authors used a questionnaire including a dozen self-made composite questions based on the definitions of cognitive strategies based on the classification of Paul Cyr (1988) and O'Malley and Chamot (1983) and the qualitative questionnaire. The statistical analysis of the data collected in this article shows that among the cognitive strategies, note-taking strategies with 76.30%, strategies related to guessing the meaning of words with 75.71%, and the strategy of communicating and associating words with 71.71% have been used the most. Also, based on the results of this research, among the cognitive strategies, the two factors of searching for a source and connecting and associating words with 58% have the most effect on the independence of the language learner.
Sedighifar and Khaleghizadeh in an article entitled “Memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies: investigating the relationship between the use of strategies and the level of success of non-Iranian Persian learners in writing skills” (2017, pp. 138-113), investigated the effect of memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies on the success rate of non-Iranian Farsi learners in writing skills. The statistical sample of this research consisted of 42 male and female non-Iranian Arabic-speaking Farsi learners, between the ages of 18 and 20, who were studying Persian in the advanced course in the fall semester of 2015. The research tool to measure the use of strategies was the Oxford Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire (1990) and to determine the relationship between the use of Persian language learning strategies and the level of success of Persian learners in writing skills, the grades of these learners in the writing lesson were used. In this research, the results of the Pearson correlation coefficient test show that there is a significant positive relationship between the use of memory strategy and compensatory strategy with success in writing skills. This is while according to the findings of this research, there is no significant relationship between the use of cognitive strategies and success in writing skills. Also in this article, the regression analysis in two steps shows that among the types of direct strategies for learning Persian language, memory and compensatory strategies have caused the success of Persian learners in writing lessons, and among these strategies, the use of compensatory strategies is more effective than the memory strategy. It has been successful in the writing skills of Persian students. Finally, the authors have provided suggestions for teaching strategies in Persian language classes.
  1. Methodology
In this research, in order to compare the abilities of self-directed and non-self-directed people in using cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, we published a call and in it, we invited people who had learned the French language completely or relatively self-directed to answer two questionnaires about the use of cognitive strategies and answer metacognitively. These two questionnaires are taken from Pulitzer and McGroarty (1985) and Willing (1988). The two mentioned questionnaires are in accordance with the standards and strategies proposed in The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages ​​(2001) and have been used by us. It is important to invite learners to answer the questionnaire questions spontaneously and as honestly as possible, because our goal is not to judge them, but to help them learn. Due to the limited number of people in this spectrum, the statistical community of self-directed learners consists of people from different occupations, educations and ages. The number of these self-directed students is 35, all of whom are Iranian, but not all of them necessarily live in Iran. At the same time, 35 people who had not been self-directed in any course of French language learning were also asked to answer the above-mentioned two questionnaires. This group of language learners are also selected from different professions, educations and ages. Questionnaire number one contains 14 questions and is related to different types of metacognitive strategies. Questionnaire number two contains 17 questions and is related to different types of cognitive guides. It should be mentioned that each question has three options and in each question, the language learners were asked to choose option number 1 if they rarely or never use this strategy, option number 2 if they use it sometimes, and option number 2 if they do it most of the time. If they always do it, check option number 3.
  1. Results
Our main problem in this research was to answer the question, how can we help the learners to have independence in learning and have self-directed learning skills in the French language class? For this purpose, we presented two questionnaires including questions related to metacognitive and cognitive strategies to two groups of self-directed and non-self-directed language learners and asked them to answer the questions. The results obtained from the responses of these two groups to the two questionnaires mentioned clearly prove our hypothesis that self-taught learners naturally have higher “interpersonal skills” and “learning skills”  than non-self-taught learners. The attention given to this question makes us better understand the importance of teaching the concept of “learning to learn” in the field of French-language education.
According to Porcher (2004) and Barbot (2000, p.21), independence in learning is both a goal and a means to achieve the ability to communicate and learn independently. Language learners must be taught that no one can do this for them, and teachers must also resist the temptation to assume the role of savior.
Therefore, a language learner who can create his own learning process and participate in the responsibility of his own learning, can determine his own goals, his own learning process and his own assessment tool with the help of his teacher. But the appropriate method, tool and training should be given to the learner so that he knows how he can take responsibility for his own learning; Also, the language learner should be placed in a suitable position so that he can be truly responsible for his learning and put it into practice. According to Carton (1994), it is not a matter of directing the language learner to do his own learning, but we should teach him how to have an independent learning so that he can develop independent working skills.
Regarding the importance of the skill of "learning to learn" or “learning by self-learning”, it should be said that this “know how” is not acquired by itself and it is necessary for the language learner to acquire knowledge and skills about cognitive and metacognitive strategies either personally or with the help of his teachers. Undoubtedly, acquiring knowledge and skills in this field enables the learner to be able to:
- Identify and determine language goals and needs for himself. In other words, the language learner should define his own learning goal and path according to his current and future language needs and also according to what he has acquired in the past (metacognitive strategy);
- choose the means to achieve these goals. In other words, the language learner must define for himself how to learn; this topic includes the selection of educational materials and content and familiarity with the methods and techniques of using them (cognitive strategy);
- use techniques such as note-taking, knowledge transfer, inference, inference or induction in their learning (cognitive strategy);
- organize his learning process in different time and space intervals (metacognitive strategy);
 - evaluate the results obtained in relation to the desired goals in language learning (metacognitive strategy);
- evaluate his learning process in a real way and as it is, or in other words, be able to determine the connection between the decisions made about his learning process and what and how his learning is (metacognitive strategy).
It is important to mention that the model presented above is based on the lived experience of self-directed language learners in using the cognitive and metacognitive strategies introduced throughout the article. In the new theories of language teaching, such as the active approach, the role of the language learner is self-centered in learning, and the role of the language teacher has changed from a source of information to a guide and feedback giver. According to the interpretation of some writers, the role of the teacher in the information age has changed from omniscient to a guide on the sidelines. But the findings of this research offer a new reading of the mentioned interpretation; In the sense that, according to our interpretation, in modern educational approaches, the role of the teacher has not only been marginalized, but this role has turned into a far more serious responsibility than in the past; Because the language teacher must be able to change his role from the active mode of presenting the lesson content, which has been common in the field of education until now, to the active mode of the technologist, technique-oriented and a kind of teacher of learning strategies and techniques. Therefore, that he can train independent language learners who are data-oriented and data-sensitive, and can include learning strategies in their educational program. It is obvious that this will not be possible except with a specialized study of how to teach and learn a variety of teaching-learning strategies and passing specialized teacher training courses for language teachers.
In this article, we have focused on examining the degree of autonomy and the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in self-taught and non-self-taught language learners in face-to-face lessons. However, examining the independence factor as a dependent variable may be the subject of further research in the field of virtual education in the future. Furthermore, by using the potentials of information and communication technologies (ICT), learner-centered assessment methods such as self-assessment and peer-testing can be better implemented than traditional learning environments. The information and communication technology-based program can develop high-level cognitive strategies such as problem solving, critical thinking, composition and creation, self-assessment, self-discovery and self-learning in today's students better than before (Vanderlinde & al., 2012).
 

Investigating the Effect of Natural Cognitive Intelligence and Awareness-increasing Metacognitive Intelligence on the Learning of Listening Skills of Second Language Learners (Case Study: Arabic Language Educational Collection Book: Shahed and Taallom)
Norudin Parvin,
Volume 15, Issue 6 (3-2024)
Abstract
Many studies show that the long-standing perception of listening as a passive skill in language learning has led to traditional auditory teaching methods leading learners to passive input receivers, while learners should be taught in a way that is passive. They should be able to control and strengthen their auditory function. Metacognitive intelligence strategies enable learners to plan, monitor, problem-solve, and evaluate, making them more active listeners. For this purpose, a class (26 students) of auditory secondary learners of the Shahed and Taallom Educational Collection in an educational center was selected as a sample and after removing outliers, using a quasi-experimental pre-test method - Intervention-post-test, the performance of the learners in the auditory parallel tests, before and after the educational intervention, was examined by SPSS software and paired t-test. The results indicate that the learners have increased their learning skills in the post-exam stage with the awareness of metacognitive intelligence, and self-regulation has increased their motivation and also their learning success. In the light of these findings, concepts and suggestions for further studies were presented.

1. Introduction
Metacognition has been accepted as the main factor in educational progress, especially in language learning. Considering the positive relationship between metacognitive intelligence and improving listening skills, so far no research has been done on the effect of metacognitive intelligence on the listening skills of Iranian learners of Arabic as a second language. Therefore, an independent research based on the effect of metacognitive listening strategy training on improving listening comprehension and metacognitive awareness of Arabic language learners seems necessary. The purpose of the current research is to investigate the effect of metacognitive intelligence awareness-raising on listening skills among secondary level students of the "Shahed and Taallom" educational collection.

Research Questions
By considering the problems stated above, the following questions are raised:
1. What is the relationship between intrinsic cognitive intelligence and Arabic listening skills?
2. Does metacognitive intelligence awareness have an impact on improving listening skills of Arabic language learners?

2. Literature Review
Listening is a complex skill and since it plays an important role in people's daily life, it needs attention and precision. Bervan (2001) believes that learners in the classroom should focus more on listening than speaking. Emphasizing listening skills, he admits that his listening ability is usually more than his verbal ability, and this is the reason why in recent years of language education, he has paid more attention to listening comprehension(Sotudeh & Taqipoor, 2010)
By metacognition theory, we mean the theory of metacognition, the theory of cognition. Metacognitive theories are a subset of theories of mind. Theories of mind include, but are not limited to, theories of cognition. Theories of mind deal with mental phenomena such as emotions, personality, etc. (Astington, 1993). Seif (2012) believes that metacognition is the awareness of a person in relation to how he learns; Therefore, metacognitive theories are those theories of the mind that focus on the cognitive aspects of the mind. In fact, metacognitive theories harmonize the beliefs or hypotheses that allow people to predict, control and explain their own knowledge, the knowledge of others, or knowledge in general (Montgomery, 1992). Bailer and Snowman (1993) believe that metacognition is a person's knowledge about his own cognitive processes and the quality of their useful and constructive use to achieve learning goals. 

3. Methodology
 The research method used in this article is quantitative. In the first step, the research is conducted in a quasi-experimental manner, In order to find out the correlation between subjective intelligence questionnaire and listening skills, the students were asked to answer the questionnaire and participated in a listening test which was designed from the content of the intermediate level book "Shahed and Taallom". In the self-intelligence questionnaire, we considered a score between 0-60 , which were tested in two indicators (do: 2 points and do not: 0). The results of the questionnaire and the listening test were analyzed in the paired t-test, which proved the positive correlation between subjective intelligence and listening skill.

4. Results
The present study first discovered the degree of correlation between inherent cognitive intelligence and listening skills and subjected them to educational intervention. The second step also measured the effectiveness of metacognitive intelligence educational interventions in strengthening learners' listening skills compared to before the intervention. The results showed that targeted training of metacognitive intelligence had a significant effect on increasing learning and improving learners' performance in listening tests. The results of the present research showed that the strategy of comprehensive interaction with peers as one of the strategies to raise awareness of metacognitive intelligence can greatly help improve the listening skills of learners. 
The present research showed that teachers make different aspects of learning visible to learners by raising awareness of metacognitive intelligence, thus turning them from passive recipients into active listeners. The results of Hughes and Schumacher's (1991) study are also consistent with this finding, as they found that students who used the "self-test" strategy increased their scores on class tests from of 57 to 71 percent.

 
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