Volume 14, Issue 2 (2023)
LRR 2023, 14(2): 115-149 |
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Shobeiry L. The study of difference between self-taught and non-self-taught learners in terms of the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. LRR 2023; 14 (2) :115-149
URL: http://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article-14-54359-en.html
URL: http://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article-14-54359-en.html
Assistant Professor, Department of French and German Language, Faculty of Literature, Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; , l.shobeiri@gmail.com
Abstract: (1922 Views)
Autonomy and self-learning are concepts that have regained value and meaning in modern methods of foreign language teaching. The purpose of this study is to investigate how language learners can be encouraged to gain autonomy in learning and self-learning skills in a French language classroom. To provide a solution in this regard, we first need to answer the question, what is the basic difference between self-taught and non-self-taught language learners? Our hypothesis is that self-taught learners naturally have higher "knowledge-skills", "knowledge-learning skills" and higher life experience than others. In order to compare the abilities of self-taught and non-self-taught learners in applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies, we published a call and asked 35 learners who had learned French completely or partially on their own to answer two questionnaires about using cognitive and metacognitive strategies. These two questionnaires are taken from Politzer, McGroarty and Willing. At the same time, 35 people who had not been self-taught in any course of learning French were asked to answer the above two questionnaires. The results of this study, which was presented as a descriptive statistic, show that learners use both strategies they have higher abilities. As a result, it should be said that autonomy and all cognitive and metacognitive strategies, although they may exist naturally in all individuals, but their emergence from potential to actual in most cases is not spontaneous and requires educational support.
The presence of media, Internet and virtual networks has undoubtedly caused the increasing access of people to foreign languages and many obstacles to learning foreign languages have disappeared. However, the new issue that is raised today despite the advancement of technology is the issue of self-learning, which unlike the past has taken a new approach and is addressed as an ability to learn. In other words, new educational methods seek to create a link between learning and the independence of the learner in learning. In communicative approach as well as in the action-oriented approach which is based on the constructivist learning theory and has a psychological approach as well as an interactive-social approach in language teaching, the role of language learner is a central and the language learner must take responsibility for his own learning. Meanwhile, the role of teacher has also undergone changes; In other words, the professor in the foreign language class is no longer omniscient and plays the role of a guide alongside the student. In this research, we intend to examine concepts such as independence in learning and the role of self-learning in modern educational approaches. Our purpose of conducting this research is to answer the question of how to help the learners to have independence in learning and to have self-learning skills in the French language teaching class. To provide a solution in this field, we first need to answer the question, what is the difference between self-directed and non-self-directed language learners? Our hypothesis in this research is that autonomous learners naturally have higher interpersonal skills, learning skills and lived experience than others. These skills are one of the most obvious manifestations of a language learner's identity, which are directly linked to their personality factors.
The concept of independence or autonomy appeared in education in the 1990s and led to the emergence of a new method and a new reading in the curricula and educational goals of educational institutions. Many educational theories and approaches, such as the communicative and action-oriented approach, also attribute this concept to themselves because of its importance and value in education. In fact, it can be said that independent learning is a concept that appears mostly in foreign languages in a modern way. But the definition of this concept has been discussed by several linguists such as Holec (1981). Holec asserts that autonomous learning is "the ability to take ownership of one's own learning." On the other hand, according to Little (1991), "learner independence" includes the ability to separate, have critical thinking, and the ability to make independent decisions and actions in the learner.
On the other hand, Nunan (1997) defines autonomy as a model with five levels, which includes learner performance, sensitivity or awareness towards learning, participation, intervention, creation and excellence. As we can see, there are different concepts of independence in language learning.
Among the studies that have been done so far in Iran about learning strategies, the independence of language learners and its relationship with the level of use of learning strategies, we can refer to the article “Investigation of the level of use of cognitive strategies and its relationship with the independence of language students” written by Rahmatian and Marzieh Zohrevandi (2011, pp. 173-190). In this research, the rate of use of cognitive strategies among students and the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence of French language students have been investigated. In order to measure the amount of use of cognitive strategies and to better understand the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence, the authors used a questionnaire including a dozen self-made composite questions based on the definitions of cognitive strategies based on the classification of Paul Cyr (1988) and O'Malley and Chamot (1983) and the qualitative questionnaire. The statistical analysis of the data collected in this article shows that among the cognitive strategies, note-taking strategies with 76.30%, strategies related to guessing the meaning of words with 75.71%, and the strategy of communicating and associating words with 71.71% have been used the most. Also, based on the results of this research, among the cognitive strategies, the two factors of searching for a source and connecting and associating words with 58% have the most effect on the independence of the language learner.
Sedighifar and Khaleghizadeh in an article entitled “Memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies: investigating the relationship between the use of strategies and the level of success of non-Iranian Persian learners in writing skills” (2017, pp. 138-113), investigated the effect of memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies on the success rate of non-Iranian Farsi learners in writing skills. The statistical sample of this research consisted of 42 male and female non-Iranian Arabic-speaking Farsi learners, between the ages of 18 and 20, who were studying Persian in the advanced course in the fall semester of 2015. The research tool to measure the use of strategies was the Oxford Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire (1990) and to determine the relationship between the use of Persian language learning strategies and the level of success of Persian learners in writing skills, the grades of these learners in the writing lesson were used. In this research, the results of the Pearson correlation coefficient test show that there is a significant positive relationship between the use of memory strategy and compensatory strategy with success in writing skills. This is while according to the findings of this research, there is no significant relationship between the use of cognitive strategies and success in writing skills. Also in this article, the regression analysis in two steps shows that among the types of direct strategies for learning Persian language, memory and compensatory strategies have caused the success of Persian learners in writing lessons, and among these strategies, the use of compensatory strategies is more effective than the memory strategy. It has been successful in the writing skills of Persian students. Finally, the authors have provided suggestions for teaching strategies in Persian language classes.
According to Porcher (2004) and Barbot (2000, p.21), independence in learning is both a goal and a means to achieve the ability to communicate and learn independently. Language learners must be taught that no one can do this for them, and teachers must also resist the temptation to assume the role of savior.
Therefore, a language learner who can create his own learning process and participate in the responsibility of his own learning, can determine his own goals, his own learning process and his own assessment tool with the help of his teacher. But the appropriate method, tool and training should be given to the learner so that he knows how he can take responsibility for his own learning; Also, the language learner should be placed in a suitable position so that he can be truly responsible for his learning and put it into practice. According to Carton (1994), it is not a matter of directing the language learner to do his own learning, but we should teach him how to have an independent learning so that he can develop independent working skills.
Regarding the importance of the skill of "learning to learn" or “learning by self-learning”, it should be said that this “know how” is not acquired by itself and it is necessary for the language learner to acquire knowledge and skills about cognitive and metacognitive strategies either personally or with the help of his teachers. Undoubtedly, acquiring knowledge and skills in this field enables the learner to be able to:
- Identify and determine language goals and needs for himself. In other words, the language learner should define his own learning goal and path according to his current and future language needs and also according to what he has acquired in the past (metacognitive strategy);
- choose the means to achieve these goals. In other words, the language learner must define for himself how to learn; this topic includes the selection of educational materials and content and familiarity with the methods and techniques of using them (cognitive strategy);
- use techniques such as note-taking, knowledge transfer, inference, inference or induction in their learning (cognitive strategy);
- organize his learning process in different time and space intervals (metacognitive strategy);
- evaluate the results obtained in relation to the desired goals in language learning (metacognitive strategy);
- evaluate his learning process in a real way and as it is, or in other words, be able to determine the connection between the decisions made about his learning process and what and how his learning is (metacognitive strategy).
It is important to mention that the model presented above is based on the lived experience of self-directed language learners in using the cognitive and metacognitive strategies introduced throughout the article. In the new theories of language teaching, such as the active approach, the role of the language learner is self-centered in learning, and the role of the language teacher has changed from a source of information to a guide and feedback giver. According to the interpretation of some writers, the role of the teacher in the information age has changed from omniscient to a guide on the sidelines. But the findings of this research offer a new reading of the mentioned interpretation; In the sense that, according to our interpretation, in modern educational approaches, the role of the teacher has not only been marginalized, but this role has turned into a far more serious responsibility than in the past; Because the language teacher must be able to change his role from the active mode of presenting the lesson content, which has been common in the field of education until now, to the active mode of the technologist, technique-oriented and a kind of teacher of learning strategies and techniques. Therefore, that he can train independent language learners who are data-oriented and data-sensitive, and can include learning strategies in their educational program. It is obvious that this will not be possible except with a specialized study of how to teach and learn a variety of teaching-learning strategies and passing specialized teacher training courses for language teachers.
In this article, we have focused on examining the degree of autonomy and the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in self-taught and non-self-taught language learners in face-to-face lessons. However, examining the independence factor as a dependent variable may be the subject of further research in the field of virtual education in the future. Furthermore, by using the potentials of information and communication technologies (ICT), learner-centered assessment methods such as self-assessment and peer-testing can be better implemented than traditional learning environments. The information and communication technology-based program can develop high-level cognitive strategies such as problem solving, critical thinking, composition and creation, self-assessment, self-discovery and self-learning in today's students better than before (Vanderlinde & al., 2012).
- Introduction
The presence of media, Internet and virtual networks has undoubtedly caused the increasing access of people to foreign languages and many obstacles to learning foreign languages have disappeared. However, the new issue that is raised today despite the advancement of technology is the issue of self-learning, which unlike the past has taken a new approach and is addressed as an ability to learn. In other words, new educational methods seek to create a link between learning and the independence of the learner in learning. In communicative approach as well as in the action-oriented approach which is based on the constructivist learning theory and has a psychological approach as well as an interactive-social approach in language teaching, the role of language learner is a central and the language learner must take responsibility for his own learning. Meanwhile, the role of teacher has also undergone changes; In other words, the professor in the foreign language class is no longer omniscient and plays the role of a guide alongside the student. In this research, we intend to examine concepts such as independence in learning and the role of self-learning in modern educational approaches. Our purpose of conducting this research is to answer the question of how to help the learners to have independence in learning and to have self-learning skills in the French language teaching class. To provide a solution in this field, we first need to answer the question, what is the difference between self-directed and non-self-directed language learners? Our hypothesis in this research is that autonomous learners naturally have higher interpersonal skills, learning skills and lived experience than others. These skills are one of the most obvious manifestations of a language learner's identity, which are directly linked to their personality factors.
- Literature Review
The concept of independence or autonomy appeared in education in the 1990s and led to the emergence of a new method and a new reading in the curricula and educational goals of educational institutions. Many educational theories and approaches, such as the communicative and action-oriented approach, also attribute this concept to themselves because of its importance and value in education. In fact, it can be said that independent learning is a concept that appears mostly in foreign languages in a modern way. But the definition of this concept has been discussed by several linguists such as Holec (1981). Holec asserts that autonomous learning is "the ability to take ownership of one's own learning." On the other hand, according to Little (1991), "learner independence" includes the ability to separate, have critical thinking, and the ability to make independent decisions and actions in the learner.
On the other hand, Nunan (1997) defines autonomy as a model with five levels, which includes learner performance, sensitivity or awareness towards learning, participation, intervention, creation and excellence. As we can see, there are different concepts of independence in language learning.
Among the studies that have been done so far in Iran about learning strategies, the independence of language learners and its relationship with the level of use of learning strategies, we can refer to the article “Investigation of the level of use of cognitive strategies and its relationship with the independence of language students” written by Rahmatian and Marzieh Zohrevandi (2011, pp. 173-190). In this research, the rate of use of cognitive strategies among students and the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence of French language students have been investigated. In order to measure the amount of use of cognitive strategies and to better understand the relationship between cognitive strategies and independence, the authors used a questionnaire including a dozen self-made composite questions based on the definitions of cognitive strategies based on the classification of Paul Cyr (1988) and O'Malley and Chamot (1983) and the qualitative questionnaire. The statistical analysis of the data collected in this article shows that among the cognitive strategies, note-taking strategies with 76.30%, strategies related to guessing the meaning of words with 75.71%, and the strategy of communicating and associating words with 71.71% have been used the most. Also, based on the results of this research, among the cognitive strategies, the two factors of searching for a source and connecting and associating words with 58% have the most effect on the independence of the language learner.
Sedighifar and Khaleghizadeh in an article entitled “Memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies: investigating the relationship between the use of strategies and the level of success of non-Iranian Persian learners in writing skills” (2017, pp. 138-113), investigated the effect of memory, cognitive and compensatory strategies on the success rate of non-Iranian Farsi learners in writing skills. The statistical sample of this research consisted of 42 male and female non-Iranian Arabic-speaking Farsi learners, between the ages of 18 and 20, who were studying Persian in the advanced course in the fall semester of 2015. The research tool to measure the use of strategies was the Oxford Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire (1990) and to determine the relationship between the use of Persian language learning strategies and the level of success of Persian learners in writing skills, the grades of these learners in the writing lesson were used. In this research, the results of the Pearson correlation coefficient test show that there is a significant positive relationship between the use of memory strategy and compensatory strategy with success in writing skills. This is while according to the findings of this research, there is no significant relationship between the use of cognitive strategies and success in writing skills. Also in this article, the regression analysis in two steps shows that among the types of direct strategies for learning Persian language, memory and compensatory strategies have caused the success of Persian learners in writing lessons, and among these strategies, the use of compensatory strategies is more effective than the memory strategy. It has been successful in the writing skills of Persian students. Finally, the authors have provided suggestions for teaching strategies in Persian language classes.
- Methodology
- Results
According to Porcher (2004) and Barbot (2000, p.21), independence in learning is both a goal and a means to achieve the ability to communicate and learn independently. Language learners must be taught that no one can do this for them, and teachers must also resist the temptation to assume the role of savior.
Therefore, a language learner who can create his own learning process and participate in the responsibility of his own learning, can determine his own goals, his own learning process and his own assessment tool with the help of his teacher. But the appropriate method, tool and training should be given to the learner so that he knows how he can take responsibility for his own learning; Also, the language learner should be placed in a suitable position so that he can be truly responsible for his learning and put it into practice. According to Carton (1994), it is not a matter of directing the language learner to do his own learning, but we should teach him how to have an independent learning so that he can develop independent working skills.
Regarding the importance of the skill of "learning to learn" or “learning by self-learning”, it should be said that this “know how” is not acquired by itself and it is necessary for the language learner to acquire knowledge and skills about cognitive and metacognitive strategies either personally or with the help of his teachers. Undoubtedly, acquiring knowledge and skills in this field enables the learner to be able to:
- Identify and determine language goals and needs for himself. In other words, the language learner should define his own learning goal and path according to his current and future language needs and also according to what he has acquired in the past (metacognitive strategy);
- choose the means to achieve these goals. In other words, the language learner must define for himself how to learn; this topic includes the selection of educational materials and content and familiarity with the methods and techniques of using them (cognitive strategy);
- use techniques such as note-taking, knowledge transfer, inference, inference or induction in their learning (cognitive strategy);
- organize his learning process in different time and space intervals (metacognitive strategy);
- evaluate the results obtained in relation to the desired goals in language learning (metacognitive strategy);
- evaluate his learning process in a real way and as it is, or in other words, be able to determine the connection between the decisions made about his learning process and what and how his learning is (metacognitive strategy).
It is important to mention that the model presented above is based on the lived experience of self-directed language learners in using the cognitive and metacognitive strategies introduced throughout the article. In the new theories of language teaching, such as the active approach, the role of the language learner is self-centered in learning, and the role of the language teacher has changed from a source of information to a guide and feedback giver. According to the interpretation of some writers, the role of the teacher in the information age has changed from omniscient to a guide on the sidelines. But the findings of this research offer a new reading of the mentioned interpretation; In the sense that, according to our interpretation, in modern educational approaches, the role of the teacher has not only been marginalized, but this role has turned into a far more serious responsibility than in the past; Because the language teacher must be able to change his role from the active mode of presenting the lesson content, which has been common in the field of education until now, to the active mode of the technologist, technique-oriented and a kind of teacher of learning strategies and techniques. Therefore, that he can train independent language learners who are data-oriented and data-sensitive, and can include learning strategies in their educational program. It is obvious that this will not be possible except with a specialized study of how to teach and learn a variety of teaching-learning strategies and passing specialized teacher training courses for language teachers.
In this article, we have focused on examining the degree of autonomy and the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in self-taught and non-self-taught language learners in face-to-face lessons. However, examining the independence factor as a dependent variable may be the subject of further research in the field of virtual education in the future. Furthermore, by using the potentials of information and communication technologies (ICT), learner-centered assessment methods such as self-assessment and peer-testing can be better implemented than traditional learning environments. The information and communication technology-based program can develop high-level cognitive strategies such as problem solving, critical thinking, composition and creation, self-assessment, self-discovery and self-learning in today's students better than before (Vanderlinde & al., 2012).
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