Learners' Perceptions of Computerized Cognitive Training Transfer to L2 Learning: An Adaptive Case for COVID-19

Document Type : مقالات علمی پژوهشی

Authors
S. Seyyedabadi 1
Z. Nafissi 2
R. Rostami 3
E. Sotoudehnama 4
1 PhD Candidate in TEFL, Department of English, Faculty of Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
2 Associate Professor in TEFL, Department of English, Faculty of Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
3 Professor in Psychology, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
4 Professor in TEFL, Department of English, Faculty of Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Cognitive Training (CT) refers to programs designed to enhance the efficiency of cognitive and brain mechanisms through practice and/or intentional instruction. A highly controversial issue in the field of Computerized Cognitive Training (CCT) is its possible transferability to non-trained areas; one untouched discipline is second language (L2) learning. Hence, due to the facilitative role of attention and the predictive strength of working memory in L2 development and comprehension, CCT seems necessary for English language learners. Furthermore, few studies have investigated users’ perceptions of potential improvements in their cognitive functioning. To fill such inherent gaps and overcome the imposed barriers of conducting intervention studies during the COVID-19 pandemic era, this study adopted an interdisciplinary approach to explore English language learners’ self-perceived Far Transfer (FT) effects of Remote Adaptive Multi-Domain Computerized Cognitive Training (RAMCCT) in general cognitive functioning and L2-specific cognitive functioning. Thus, online observations of L2 receptive skills courses (reading and listening) and synchronous semi-structured interviews were undertaken with a convenience sample of 11 intermediate EFL learners who completed eight weeks of RAMCCT. Thematic Analysis (TA) revealed perceived advances in working memory, attention, multitasking, processing speed, hand-eye/ear coordination in general cognitive functioning, and improvements in either one or both of the L2 receptive skills in terms of attention and comprehension and speed. The results are discussed by the corresponding links between attention, working memory, and multitasking, together with the automatization of the core cognitive processes. Implications address game designers, L2 teachers, teacher training programs, and researchers.

Keywords

Subjects

Alptekin, C., & Erçetin, G. (2010). The role of L1 and L2 working memory in literal and inferential comprehension in L2 reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 33(2), 206–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01412.x
Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., Kong, E., Larraburo, Y., Rolle, C., Johnston, E., & Gazzaley, A. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12486
Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 22(2), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x
Awh, E., Vogel, E. K., & Oh, S. H. (2006). Interactions between attention and working memory. Neuroscience, 139(1), 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.08.023
Ball, K., Edwards, J. D., Ross, L. A., & McGwin, G. (2010). Cognitive training decreases motor vehicle collision involvement of older drivers. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 58(11), 2107–2113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03138.x
Barkley, C. M. (2015). Event-related potential (ERP) studies of the role of working memory, selective attention, and attentional efficiency in language acquisition and comprehension (Publication No. 3718399) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2n69z73n
Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612
Bellander, M. (2016). Plasticity of memory functioning: Genetic predictors and brain changes [Doctoral dissertation, Karolinska Institute]. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/70344170.pdf
Benso, F., Moretti, S., Bellazzini, V., Benso, E., Ardu, E., & Gazzellini, S. (2021). Principles of integrated cognitive training for executive attention: Application to an instrumental skill. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647749
BrainWare Learning Company. (2019, November). BrainWare SAFARI cognitive skills definitions. https://MyBrainWare.com
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: Training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063
Bürki, C. N., Ludwig, C., Chicherio, C., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2014). Individual differences in cognitive plasticity: An investigation of training curves in younger and older adults. Psychological Research, 78(6), 821–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3
Cambridge. (2022). Cambridge Assessment English. https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/we-are/centres/
Creswell, J. W. (2015). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (5th ed.). Pearson.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE.
Dolgunsöz, E. (2015). Measuring attention in second language reading using eye-tracking: The case of the noticing hypothesis. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 8(5), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.8.5.4
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Duric, N. S., Assmus, J., Gundersen, D., & Elgen, I. B. (2012). Neurofeedback for the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD: A randomized and controlled clinical trial using parental reports. BMC Psychiatry, 12(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-12-107
Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., & Snyder, L. E. (2006). Cognitive hypothesis testing and response to intervention for children with reading problems. Psychology in the Schools, 43(8), 835–853. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20192
Galbiati, S., Recla, M., Pastore, V., Liscio, M., Bardoni, A., Castelli, E., & Strazzer, S. (2009). Attention remediation following traumatic brain injury in childhood and adolescence. Neuropsychology, 23(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013409
Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203137093
Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2020). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (5th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315181752
Gibson, K. (2006). Unlock the Einstein inside: Applying new brain science to wake up the smart in your child. LearningRx.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597–607. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2003.1870
Green, C. S., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2014). On methodological standards in training and transfer experiments. Psychological Research, 78(6), 756–772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-013-0535-3
Hayashi, Y. (2019). Investigating effects of working memory training on foreign language development. Modern Language Journal, 103(3), 665–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12584
Hayashi, Y., Kobayashi, T., & Toyoshige, T. (2016). Investigating the relative contributions of computerised working memory training and English language teaching to cognitive and foreign language development. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(2), 196–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3177
Jedlicka, E. J. (2012). The real-life benefits of cognitive training (Publication No. 3519139) [Doctoral dissertation, Capella University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Karbach, J., & Unger, K. (2014). Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00390
Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25(11), 2027–2037. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614548725
Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 15(1), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2014.02.004
Klimova, B. (2016). Computer-based cognitive training in aging. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00313
Kray, J., Karbach, J., Haenig, S., & Freitag, C. (2012). Can task-switching training enhance executive control functioning in children with attention deficit/-hyperactivity disorder? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00180
Leow, R. P. (2020). Attention, noticing, and awareness in second language acquisition. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (pp. 269–275). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0058.pub2
Li, S. C., Schmiedek, F., Huxhold, O., Röcke, C., Smith, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Working memory plasticity in old age: Practice gain, transfer, and maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014343
Liepelt, R., Strobach, T., Frensch, P., & Schubert, T. (2011). Improved intertask coordination after extensive dual-task practice. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(7), 1251–1272. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2010.543284
Linck, J. A., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. F. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 21(4), 861–883. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0565-2
Linck, J. A., & Weiss, D. J. (2015). Can working memory and inhibitory control predict second language learning in the classroom? SAGE Open, 5(4), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015607352
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. SAGE.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2016). Second language research: Methodology and design (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750606
Merriam, S., & Tisdell, E. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Wiley.
Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning theories (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203770795
Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second language learning theories (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315617046
Nguyen, L., Murphy, K., & Andrews, G. (2019). Immediate and long-term efficacy of executive functions cognitive training in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(7), 698–733. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000196
Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A. S., Howard, R. J., & Ballard, C. G. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465(7299), 775–778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09042
Pappa, K., Biswas, V., Flegal, K. E., Evans, J. J., & Baylan, S. (2020). Working memory updating training promotes plasticity and behavioural gains: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 118, 209–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.027
Park, D. C., Lodi-Smith, J., Drew, L., Haber, S., Hebrank, A., Bischof, G. N., & Aamodt, W. (2014). The impact of sustained engagement on cognitive function in older adults: The synapse project. Psychological Science, 25(1), 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613499592
Poldrack, R. A., Sabb, F. W., Foerde, K., Tom, S. M., Asarnow, R. F., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Knowlton, B. J. (2005). The neural correlates of motor skill automaticity. Journal of Neuroscience, 25(22), 5356–5364. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3880-04.2005
Redick, T. S. (2016). On the relation of working memory and multitasking: Memory span and synthetic work performance. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(4), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.003
Rueda, M. R., Cómbita, L. M., & Pozuelos, J. P. (2021). Cognitive training in childhood and adolescence. In T.
Strobach & J. Karbach (Eds.), Cognitive training (2nd ed., pp. 127–139). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_9
Sagarra, N. (2013). Working memory in second language acquisition. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (pp. 6207–6215). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal1286
Sala, G., Deniz Aksayli, N., Semir Tatlidil, K., Tatsumi, T., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019). Near and far transfer in cognitive training: A second-order meta-analysis. Collabra: Psychology, 5(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.203
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). Does far transfer exist? Negative evidence from chess, music, and working memory training. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 515–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417712760
Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016). Do “brain-training” programs work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983
Strobach, T., & Karbach, J. (2021). Introduction. In T.
Strobach & J. Karbach (Eds.), Cognitive training (2nd ed., pp. 1–8). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_1
Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2021). Video game training and effects on executive functions. In T. Strobach & J. Karbach (Eds.), Cognitive training (2nd ed., pp. 229–241). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_16
Taatgen, N. A. (2021). Theoretical models of training and transfer effects. In T. Strobach & J. Karbach (Eds.), Cognitive training (2nd ed., pp. 41–54). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_4
The BrainWare Company. (2013). Cognitive skills developed in BrainWare SAFARI.
Tomlin, R. S., & Gernsbacher, M. (1994). Cognitive foundations of second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(2), 129–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100012833
Wen, Z., Mota, M. B., & McNeill, A. (2015). Introduction and overview. In Z. Wen, M. B. Mota, & A. McNeill (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 1–14). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783093595-004
Wilkinson, A. J., & Yang, L. (2016). Cognitive plasticity. In S. K. Whitbourne (Ed.), The encyclopedia of adulthood and aging (pp. 206–209). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118521373.wbeaa327
Language Related Research
Volume 13, Issue 5 - Serial Number 71
November and December 2022
Pages 641-671